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LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Received         IAN      3    1893  .  jgg 
^Accessions  No. l{^ ^to   .  Class  No. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/developmentlessoOOdegrrich 


DEVELOPMENT   LESSONS. 

"gov   "gtViCUtXS. 

ON 

SIZE,  FORM,  PLACE,  PLANTS,  AND   INSECTS. 


CONTATNIN-G    THE    IHTSTRUCTION    OF    SUPT.    FRANCIS    W.    PARKER,    THE 

ORIGINATOR   OF    THE    «' QUINCY  SYSTEM"    OF    TEACHING,    AND 

DEVELOPMENT    LESSONS    BASED    ON    THE    "OSWEGO 

SYSTEM"   OF  TEACHING,  AND 


LECTUEES  ON  THE  SCIENCE  AND  THE  AKT  OF  TEACHING. 


A    GUIDE   FOR   NORMAL    SCHOOLS,   INSTITUTE    IN- 
STRUCTORS,   TEACHERS'  INSTITUTES, 
TEACHERS,  AND  PARENTS. 


BY 


ESMOND   V.   DeGRAFF, 


SUPERINTENDENT  OF   SCHOOLS,    PATERSON,  N.J. ;     CONDUCTOR  OP  TEACHERS'  INSTITDTES; 

AUTHOR  OF    THE   "SCHOOL-ROOM    GUIDE,"   "PRACTICAL 

PHONICS,"   "  SONG  WAVE,"  ETC. 


MARGARET   K.   SMITH, 

M  GRADUATE   OP  THE   OSWEGO   STATE   NORMAL   SCHOOL,   NEW  TOBK- 


^^■&.A..K^S>  ILLUSTRATED. 


NEW   YORK: 


A.   LOVELL   &   CO. 

1886. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1883,  by 

A.   LOVELL  &  CO., 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.,  Printbbs,  Boston. 


TO 

OF    ILLINOIS, 

as  a  noble  example  of  the  high  and  honorable  position  which  is  attainable  by  a 
wise  improvement  of  the  study  of 

THE   SCIENCE   AND  THE   ART   OF  TEACHING, 

and  with  the  hope  that  the  great  army  of  teachers  in  the  United  States  may  be 
stimulated  to  greater  efforts  by  his  worthy  example, 

THIS   VOLUME 

is  most  respectfully  dedicated  by 

THE  AUTHORS. 


PREFACE, 


r  I  REACHING  is  regarded  as  a  Science  and  an  Art.  As  such  it  may 
be  taught  like  other  sciences  and  arts,  and  may  be  presented  in 
a  book,  to  be  studied  and  applied.  This  volume  is  the  result  of  an 
earnest  attempt  to  present  the  subjects  so  that  the  lessons  given  may 
be  used  by  all  classes  of  teachers. 


ORIGIN. 

The  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  years  of  faithful  labor  in  the  school- 
room, in  teachers'  institutes,  and  in  the  superintendency  of  schools. 
The  lessons  have  been  given  frequently  before  teachers  and  normal 
training  classes,  but  have  not  hitherto  been  collected  into  a  volume. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   THE   WORK   IN    EACH   LESSON. 

The  classification  of  each  lesson, —  1.  Object;  2.  Point;  3.  Matter; 
4.  Method, — enables  the  inexperienced,  as  well  as  the  experienced, 
teacher  to  present  the  lessons  successfully.  The  author  has  fully 
expanded  a  method  of  doing  the  work,  and  has  given  explicit  direc- 
tions to  assist  and  govern  the  teacher. 

OBJECT. 

It  has  not  been  the  aim  to  give  many  lessons  on  the  different 
subjects,  but  to  give  typical  lessons.  The  work  is  designed  to  be 
used  as  a  text-book  on  Teaching.  It  is  to  be  studied,  and  mastered, 
by  those  teaching  and  those  preparing  to  teach. 

In  its  preparation  special  effort  has  been  made  to  classify  and  de- 


VI 


PREFACE. 


velop  the  different  subjects,  so  that  it  may  be  a  guide  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  modern  methods  of  instruction,  —  a  vade  mecum  for  normal 
■  school  teachers  and  pupils.  The  time  has  passed  lohen  talks  and  lec- 
tures alone  meet  the  wants  of  modern  teachers;  and  with  this  view  in 
mind  it  will  prove  a  valuable  aid  to  students  and  parents. 

More  than  fifty  development  lessons  are  given  on  the  different  sub- 
jects, and  these  will  enable  the  teacher  to  formulate  and  present  other 
lessons  of  a  similar  character. 

Teachers  are  asking,  "How  can  we  best  prepare  ourselves  for  our 
work?"  We  answer,  that  it  is  the  hope  of  the  author  that  the 
present  work  will  aid  all  who  seek  after  the  natural  methods. 

"QUINCY    WORK." 

Special  pains  have  been  taken  to  present  and  illustrate  the  work 
of  the  Quincy  schools.  The  secret  of  the  success  attained  in  those 
schools  is  found  in  the  truism  of  Comenius :  "  Things  that  have  to  he 
y done  should  he  learned  hy  doing  them.'' 

The  "  Quincy  Work,"  alone,  is  a  compendium  on  teaching.  The 
author  has  taken  great  delight  in  presenting  the  work  of  Francis  W. 
Parker,  the  model  superintendent  of  schools,  the  wise  benefactor,  and 
the  ablest  champion  of  the  rights  of  children. 

LECTURES  ON  THE  SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

Nature  and  Contents.  —  A  work  for  teachers  should  be  moulded  by 
the  wants  of  the  teachers.  The  author  has  endeavored  to  bear  this  in 
mind  when  formulating  the  instruction  contained  in  these  lectures. 
Specific  instruction  has  been  given  on  How  to  teach  Reading,  Spell- 
ing, Phonics,  Language,  Geography,  Arithmetic,  etc.  The  methods  to 
be  used,  results  to  be  obtained,  and  cautions  to  be  observed,  are  defi- 
nitely set  forth.  The  student  teacher  should  carefully  study  these, 
until  they  become  a  part  of  his  educational  vocabulary. 


PREFACE.  Vii 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  be  merely  original.       The  endeavor 
has  been  to  present  the  modern  methods  of  teaching. 

To  Francis  W.  Parker,  for  his  kindness  in  pennitting  me  to  use 

his   work    and    instruction  to  teachers,   I  desire   to  express   the  hope 

that  this  book  may  be  of  value  to  the  teachers  of  our  country;   that 

it  may  aid  in  building  up  a  better  system  of   education,  and  inspire 

all  who  use  it  to    a  greater  degree  of  improvement  and  professional 

culture.        The    author  would   extend    his   grateful    acknowledgments 

for  encouragement,  sincerely  hoping  that  his  efforts  may  contribute  to 

the  cause  of  education. 

ESMOND  V.  DeGRAFF. 

16  AsTOR  Place,  New  York. 
July,  1883. 


CONTEI^TS. 


I.    DEVELOPMENT  LESSONS. 

PAGB 

SENSES 1 

1.  Sight.  3.  SmeU.  6.  Touch. 

2.  Sound.  4.  Taste 

SIZE 5 

1.  Large.  4.   Short.  7.   Wide. 

2.  SraaU.  6.   Thick.  8.   Narrow. 
8.  Long.                    6.  Thin. 

FORM 9 

Introduction. 

1.  Lines,  etc.  8.  Oblongs,  etc. 

2.  Converging  lines,  etc.  9.  Circles,  etc. 

3.  Angles,  etc.  10.  Radius,  etc. 

4.  Adjacent  Angles,  etc.  11.  Secant,  etc. 

5.  Triangles,  etc.  12.  Solids,  etc. 

6.  Equilateral  Triangles,  etc.  13.  Cone,  etc. 

7.  Quadrilaterals,  etc. 

PLACE 79 

1.  Patterning.  5.   Moulding. 

2.  Position.  6.   Map-drawing. 

3.  Right  and  Left.  7.  Use  of  Maps. 

4.  Points  of  the  compass. 

PLANTS 90 

Introduction. 

1.  Seed.  3.  Stem.  6.  Flower. 

2.  Root.  4.   Bud.  7.   Fruit. 

5.  Leaf. 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

INSECTS 129 

Grasshopper. 

1.  Size,  etc.  4.   Mouth,  etc.  8.  Legs,  etc. 

2.  Parts,  etc.  5.  Thorax,  etc.  9.   Abdomen,  etc. 

3.  Head,  etc.  6.   Wings,  etc.         10.   Uses,  etc. 

7.   Under  wings. 
Cricket. 

II.    QUINCY   SCHOOL   WORK 181 

IIL    LECTURES    ON    THE    SCIENCE    AND    THE    ART    OF 

TEACHING 241 

IV.    SCHOOL   DISCIPLINE 271 

V.    THE   NEW  DEPARTURE   IN  THE  COMMON   SCHOOLS 

OF  QUINCY 287 


LESSOlSr   oil  THE   SEITSES. 


LESSON  I. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Memory,  and  Lan- 
guage. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach  the  senses,  Seeing,  Feeling,  Taste,  Smell, 
and  Hearing. 

MATTER. 

1.  Seeing,  Feeling,  Taste,  Smell,  and  Hearing  are  called  the  Senses. 

2.  We  find  out  (or  perceive)  through  the  senses. 

MATERIALS. 

Apples,  candy,  sugar,  salt,  vinegar,  flowers,  etc. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Having  presented  objects,  and  had  children  talk  about 
them.)  John,  you  may  take  one  of  these  apples.  (Ch.  does  so.) 
Which  apple  did  John  take  ? 

Child.  He  took  the  red  apple. 

T.  How  did  you  find  out  that  the  apple  is  red  ? 

Ch.  I  found  it  out  by  looking  at  it. 

T.  Tell  me  that  in  another  way. 

Ch.  I  found  it  out  by  seeing  (or  sight). 

T.  What  else  can  you  find  out  about  the  apple  by  seeing?  (T.  write 
on  board  word  seeing.^ 

Ch.  I  can  find  out  whether  it  is  a  large  or  small  apple. 

T.  What  else  can  you  find  out  about  the  apple  by  seeing? 

Ch.  I  can  tell  the  shape  of  the  apple  by  seeing. 

T.  What  shape  is  it? 

Ch.  It  is  round. 

T.  What  else  can  you  find  out  about  it  by  seeing? 


LESSON  ON  THE  SENSES. 

Ch.  I  can  tell  whether  it  is  smooth  or  rough. 

Ch.  I  can  tell  whether  it  is  shiny  or  dull. 

T.  When  you  say  the  apple  is  large,  of  what  of  the  apple  are  you 

speaking  ? 
Ch.  I  am  speaking  of  the  size  of  the  apple. 
T.  And  when  you  say  it  is  round,  of  what  are  you  speaking  ? 
Ch.  I  am  speaking  of  the  shape  of  the  apple. 
T.  And  when  you  say  it  is  smooth  and  glossy,  of  what  of  the  apple 

are  you  speaking  ? 
Ch.  I  am  speaking  of  the  surface  of  the  apple. 
T.  When  you  say  it  is  red,  of  what  are  you  speaking  ? 
Ch.  I  am  speaking  of  the  color  of  the  apple. 
T.  Now  name  all  the  things  you  have  found  out  about  the  apple  by 

seeing. 
Ch.  We  have  found  out  the  size,  shape,  color,  and  kind  of  surface  of 

the  apple  by  seeing. 
T.  John,  you  may  tell  us  something  more  about  the  apple. 
Ch.  It  is  a  hard  apple. 
T.  How  do  you  know  it  is  hard  ? 
Ch.  I  feel  it. 

T.  Howidid  John  find  out  that  the  apple  is  hard? 
Ch.  He  found  out  that  the  apple  is  hard  by  feeling.     (T.  write  on 

board  word  feeling.) 
T.  What  else  can  you  find  out  about  the  apple  by  feeling? 
Ch.  I  can  find  out  whether  it  is  a  large  or  small  apple. 
T.  Of  what  of  the  apple  are  you  speaking  when  you  say  it  is  large 

or  small? 
Ch.  I  am  speaking  of  its  size. 

T.  What  else  can  you  find  out  about  it  by  feeling  ? 
Ch.  I  can  find  out  its  shape. 
T.  What  shape  is  it?     Tell  without  looking. 
Ch.  It  is  round. 
T.  Touch  something  on  the  table   without  looking,  and  tell  me  its 

shape. 
Ch.  (Takes  a  book.)     This  book  is  flat. 
T.  WTiat  else  can  you  find  out  about  the  apple  by  feeling  ? 
Ch.  I  can  find  out  whether  it  is  rough  or  smooth, 
r.  Which  is  it? 
Ch.  It  is  smooth. 
T.  Now  mention  all  the  things  you  have  found  out  about  the  apple 

by  feeling. 
Ch.  I  have  found  out  by  feeling  the  size,  shape,  and  sm-face  of  the 

apple,  and  that  it  is  hard; 


LESSON   ON  THE  SENSES.  3 

T.  How  many  of  these  things  did  you  find  out  by  seeing  ? 

Ch,  We  found  out  the  size,  shape,  and  surface  of  the  apple  by  seeing 
and  by  feeling. 

T.  Mention  one  thing  you  found  out  by  feeling  that  you  did  not  by 
seeing. 

Ch.  We  found  out  that  it  is  hard  by  feeling,  but  did  not  find  that  out 
by  seeing. 

T.  What  did  you  find  out  about  it  by  seeing  that  you  did  not  find 
out  by  feeling  ? 

Ch.  We  found  out  the  color  and  the  glossy  surface  by  seeing,  but  we 
could  not  find  that  out  by  hearing. 

T.  In  what  other  way  can  you  find  out  something  about  this  apple  ? 

Ch.  I  could  find  out  something  by  eating  it. 

T.  You  may  eat  a  piece  of  it.  (Gives  piece  to  each.)  Well,  what 
have  you  found  out  ? 

Ch.  It  is  a  sour  apple. 

T.  How  do  you  know  that  it  is  sour  ? 

Ch.  I  can  taste  it.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  How  did  he  find  out  that  this  apple  is  sour  ? 

Ch.  He  found  it  out  by  tasting.     (T.  write  on  board  word  tasting.) 

T.  While  tasting  it,  what  else  did  you  observe  besides  that  it  is  sour? 

Ch.  It  is  juicy. 

T.  How  did  you  find  that  out  ? 

Ch.  I  found  it  out  by  feeling.  (Children  may  think  they  perceive 
juiciness  rather  by  taste  than  feeling,  but  if  they  are  led  to  talk 
about  the  nature  of  juiciness,  they  will  soon  perceive  the  truth.) 

T.  In  what  other  way  can  you  find  out  something  about  this  apple  ? 

Ch.  We  can  smell  it. 

T.  You  may  do  so.  (Ch.  does  so.)  What  have  you  found  out? 
(Ch.  may  not  be  able  to  explain  what  he  perceives  by  smelling,  in 
which  case  the  T.  will  lead  him  to  state  that  apples  have  a  fra- 
grant odor,  which  distinguishes  them  from  other  fruits.) 

T.  You  may  tell  all  that  you  have  learned  about  this  apple. 

Ch.  It  is  large,  round,  smooth,  glossy,  hard,  red,  sour,  and  fragrant. 

T.  How  did  you  find  out  all  these  things  ? 

Ch.  We  found  them  out  by  seeing,  feeling,  tasting,  and  smelling. 

T  Take  something  from  the  table,  and  tell  what  you  find  out  about 
it,  by  seeing.  (Children  take  different  things,  and  describe  using 
only  sense  of  sight.  T.  have  them  take  a  picture  and  state  all 
they  find  out  about  it,  by  seeing.  Then  have  them  describe 
objects,  using  only  feeling.  Have  them  state  what  they  find  out 
by  tasting  different  tnings.  T.  should  have  present,  sugar,  salt, 
apices,  and  other  articles,  so  as  to  get  the  terms  sweet,  salt,  pung' 


4  LESSON  ON  THE  SENSES. 

ent,  sour,  bitter^  etc.  Have  them  use  terms  hot  and  cold,  as  per- 
ceived through  touch.  Have  flowers  and  other  articles  present 
that  will  enable  them  to  distinguish  different  odors.) 

T.  Name  all  the  means  you  know  by  which  we  find  out  things. 

Ch.  We  find  out  things  by  seeing,  feeling,  tasting,  and  smelling. 

T.  Who  can  think  of  another  means  by  which  we  found  out  things  ? 

Ch.  We  find  out  things  by  hearing.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm. 
T.  write  on  board  word  hearing.  Have  children  tell  what  they 
can  hear.) 

T.  Who  can  give  one  name  that  will  apply  to  all  these  powers,  by 
which  we  find  out  things  ? 

Ch.  (or  T.)  Seeing,  feeling,  taste,  smell,  and  hearing,  are  called 
senses.  (Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write  on  board  full  state- 
ment.) 

T.  Of  what  use  are  the  senses  to  us  ? 

Ch.  We  find  out  things  through  the  senses.  (T.  give  the  term  per- 
ceive, instead  of  "  find  out.") 

Note.  —  As  soon  as  children  perceive  the  use  of  the  senses,  very  use- 
ful and  very  interesting  lessons  may  be  given  upon  sensations  perceived 
by  each  of  the  senses.  As  language  exercises,  the  pupils  may  make 
statements  upon  the  different  sounds  they  can  hear.  These  statements 
may  be  as  follows  :  — 

We  can  hear  the  dog  bark  or  howl. 
We  can  hear  the  cat  mew. 
We  can  hear  the  cow  low. 
We  can  hear  the  bu'ds  sing. 
We  can  hear  the  bells  ring. 
We  can  hear  the  wind  blow. 
We  can  hear  the  clock  tick. 

The  teacher  will  at  once  perceive  the  amount  of  observation  in  one 
such  lesson,  and  if  the  work  is  done  carefully,  the  children  will  gain  an 
entirely  new  understanding  of  their  powers.  Have  the  children  state 
different  things  they  can  see,  feel,  taste,  and  smell,  in  the  same  way,  and 
lead  them  to  understand  that  we  observe  and  perceive  through  any  and 
all  of  the  senses. 


LESSOl^   O]^   SIZE. 


LESSON  I. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Judgment,  Memory, 
and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach.  Large,  Small,  Long,  Short,  Thick,  Thin, 
Wide,  Narrow. 

MATERIALS. 

Pieces  of  ribbon,  boxes  of  different  sizes,  bottles  of  different  sizes, 

pencils,  sticks  of  candy,  strings,  pointers,  books,  etc. 
The  objects  compared  must  always  be  of  the  same  kind,  but  of  dif- 

ferent  sizes. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Having  presented  different  objects,  and  had  children  talk 
about  them.)    John,  you  may  find  one  of  the  bottles.    (Ch.  does  so.) 

T.  James  may  find  another.     (Ch.  does  so.) 

T.  Which  bottle  did  John  find? 

Child.  He  found  the  big  bottle.  (T.  give  term  large  for  big.  Write 
on  board  word  large.) 

T.  And  which  bottle  did  James  find  ? 

Ch.  He  found  the  small  bottle.  (Ch.  may  say  "  the  little  bottle,"  in 
which  case  T.  gives  term  small.  Write  on  board  word  small.  The 
teacher  will  take  care  that  the  difference  in  size  is  the  chief  difi- 
ference  between  the  bottles,  and  let  that  be  sufficiently  great  to  be 
readily  observed.  The  teacher  will  observe  that  the  children  know 
these  words,  and  need  only  to  be  taught  to  apply  them  correctly.) 

T.  Find  a  large  box. 

Ch.  This  is  a  large  box. 

T.  Find  a  small  box. 

Ch.  This  is  a  small  box. 


6  LESSON  ON  SIZE. 

T.  Look  round  the  room  and  find  something  that  is  large  and  some- 
thing that  is  small. 
Ch.  This  is  a  large  apple  and  this  is  a  small  apple. 
T.  (Presenting  a  larger  one.)     If  that  is  a  large  apple,  what  shall  we 

call  this  ? 
Ch.  It  is  a  larger  apple.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  (Producing  a  still  larger  apple.)     And  what  shall  we  call  this  ? 
Ch.  That  apple  is  larger  than  either  of  the  others  ;  or,  that  is  the 

largest  apple. 
T.  Show  me  something  that  is  large. 
Ch.  This  is  a  large  book. 
T.  Show  me  a  larger  book. 
Ch.  This  is  a  larger  book. 
CA.  This  is  the  largest  book.      (Work   similarly  for    smaller    and 

smallest.) 
T.  (Presenting  two  pieces  of  candy  of  same  thickness  but  different 

lengths.)     Which  of  these  would  you  rather  have  ? 
Ch.  I  should  rather  have  the  long  piece.     (Write  on  board  word  long.) 
T.  Why? 

Ch.  Because  there  is  more  of  it.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  (Pointing  to  short  piece.)     Since  you  call  that  the   long  piece, 

what  shall  we  call  this  ? 
Ch.  That  is  the  short  piece.     (Write  on  board  word  short.) 
T.  (Presenting  a  piece  that  is  shorter.)      And  what  will  you  caD 

this? 
Ch.  That  is  a  shorter  piece. 

T.  (Presenting  a  still  shorter  piece.)     What  will  you  call  this  ? 
Ch.  That  is  the  shortest  piece. 
T.  Find  a  long  pointer. 
Ch.  This  is  a  long  pointer. 
T.  Find  a  short  one. 
Ch.  This  is  a  short  one. 
T.  Find  something  else  that  is  long. 
Ch.  This  is  a  long  ribbon. 
T.  Find  a  longer  ribbon. 
Ch.  This  is  a  longer  ribbon. 
T.  Find  the  longest  ribbon. 
Ch.  This  is  the  longest  ribbon  of  all.     (Have  children  find  objects  in 

the  room  that  are  short ;  have  them  use  shorter  and  shortest.) 
Note.  —  If  child  should  use  large,  instead  of  long,  have  him  show  the 
way  in  which  it  is  large,  and  he  will  at  once  be  able  to  use  the  word  long. 
Have  children  apply  long  and  short  to  a  variety  of  objects,  fingers,  hair, 
lines  drawn  on  the  hoard,  etc. 


LESSON  ON  SIZE.  7 

T,  (Presenting  pieces  of  ribbon  of  different  widths.)  Mary,  you 
may  take  one  of  these.     (Ch.  does  so.) 

T.  Which  piece  did  she  take  ? 

Ch.  She  took  the  wide  piece.  (Write  on  board  word  wide.  Possibly 
Ch.  may  say,  she  took  the  large  piece,  in  which  case  have  her  show 
in  which  way  it  is  large ;  and  when  she  shows  the  direction,  tell 
her  that  we  use  the  word  wide  to  denote  size  in  this  direction.) 

T.  Since  you  call  that  the  wide  piece,  what  will  you  call  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  the  narrow  piece.     (Write  on  board  word  narrow.) 

T.  (Presenting  piece  of  ribbon  wider  than  the  first.)  You  called 
that  a  wide  piece ;  what  will  you  call  this  ? 

Ch.  It  is  a  wider  piece. 

T.  (Presenting  a  still  wider  piece.)     And  what  will  you  call  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  the  widest  piece.  (Get  terms  narrower  and  narrowest  in 
similar  manner.) 

T.  Find  something  on  the  table  that  is  wide  and  something  that  is 
narrow.     (Children  do  so,  stating  what  they  have  done.) 

T.  Look  round  the  room  and  find  something  that  is  wide  and  some- 
thing that  is  narrow.  (Children  do  so,  stating  fully  each  time.  T. 
drill  on  comparative  and  superlative  of  wide  and  narrow,  as  in 
previous  cases.) 

T.  (Presenting  blocks  of  different  thickness,  but  same  shape  and 
size  otherwise.)     John,  which  block  will  you  have  ? 

Ch.  I  will  take  the  thick  block.     (Write  on  board  word  thick.) 

T.  What  will  you  call  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  a  thin  block.  (Write  on  board  word  thin.  Have  pupils 
use  comparative  and  superlative  of  each.  Drill  as  before,  by  hav- 
ing children  apply  terms  to  different  objects  in  the  room.  Then 
lead  them  to  apply  several  terms  to  the  same  object ;  as,  This  is  a 
long,  narrow,  thin  ribbon.  This  is  a  short,  wide,  thick  ribbon. 
This  is  a  large,  thick  box.  This  is  a  small,  thin  box.  Drill  upon 
all  the  words.  Have  children  recall  objects  they  have  seen,  and 
apply  the  terms  to  them.  The  work  given  here  under  size  would 
probably  take  one  or  two  weeks,  as  little  children  would  probably 
not  be  able  to  do  more  in  one  lesson  than  learn  to  use  the  words 
long  and  short.) 

Note.  —  After  the  work  on  Comparative  size.  Absolute  size  may  be 
taught.  Lead  Ch.  to  appreciate  the  yard  first.  Have  Ch.  state  how 
he  can  buy  a  yard  of  ribbon  or  cloth  at  tM-stOfSr^sSiaiye  him  show  how 


^n^^.^%. 


S  LESSON  ON   SIZE. 

long  a  yard  is.  T.  show  yard-measure.  Have  Ch.  measure  a  string. 
This  string  is  a  yard  long.  Apply  to  other  things.  Then  have  Ch.  use 
half  yard,  then  quarter  of  a  yard.     Make  table  :  — 

2  half  yards  make  1  yard. 
4  quarter  yards  make  1  yard. 
2  quarter  yards  make  ^  yard. 

Next  teach  foot.     Lead  Ch.  to  see  that  3  feet  make  1  yard. 
Next  teach  inch.     Lead  Ch.  to  state  that  12  inches  make  1  foot. 

Have  pupils  apply  inch,  foot,  and  yard:  — 

This  table  is  4  feet  long,  and  3  feet  wide. 

This  box  is  6  inches  long,  4  inches  wide,  and  2  inches  high. 


LESSONS  OE"  FORM. 


Note  1.  —  In  practical  life  ability  to  acquire  is  preferable  to  simple 
possession ;  so,  in  intellectual  matters,  the  same  preference  exists,  but  in  a 
greater  degree. 

Note  2.  —  It  is  best  not  to  give  pupils  knowledge  ready  made,  but  to 
teach  the  way  to  get  it. 

Note  3.  —  The  mere  exercise  of  memory  may  arouse  curiosity,  but 
deadens  intellectual  activity. 

Note  4.  —  Knowledge  is  more  firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  by  observation 
than  by  memorizing  alone. 

Note  5.  —  Teachers  often  make  the  mistake  of  trying  to  teach  pupils 
advanced  knowledge,  and  of  supposing  that  immature  minds  are  able  to 
digest  and  assimilate. 

They  forget  that  young  pupils  have  not  sufficiently  developed  ideas 
for  such  instruction,  and  that  consequently  they  ought  not  to  proceed 
with  them  from  the  general  to  the  particular,  but  should  first  establish 
a  foundation  of  individual  observations  which  can  finally  be  united  into 
a  general  statement.  This  may  be  termed  systematic  instruction  — 
teaching  the  principles  which  are  the  results  of  generalizing  from  indi- 
vidual observations. 

Laws  or  Principles  when  classified  and  arranged  form  a  system. 

Methodical  instruction,  or  Method,  is  the  mode  of  reaching  these 
principles ;  or,  rather,  it  is  the  perfect  adaptation  of  instruction  to  the 
mind  of  the  pupil. 

This  is  the  Inductive  Method,  —  a  method  that  brings  together  into 
one  general  idea  a  sufficient  number  of  isolated,  individual  observations 
to  establish  a  principle,  —  and  a  method  that  should  be  used  before  per- 
mitting the  use  of  reverse  operation ;  viz. :  deduction  from  the  laws 
obtained  from  individual  cases. 

From  the  above  considerations  the  following  method  is  offered:  — 

First.      The  first  thing  necessary  is  Practice  in  Observing. 

Note.  —  The  constant  t  xercise  in  carefully  observing  objects  of  study 
should  of  course  be  progressive,  from  the  easy  to  the  difficult. 


10  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

Second.  The  second  thing  necessary  is  the  habit  and  power  of  describing 
things  observed,  accurately. 

Note.  —  Hand  in  hand  with  observation  goes  training  in  describing  the 
things  observed. 

Third.  The  third  thing  necessary  is  to  study  individual  things  by  them- 
selves ;  afterwards  comes  a  comparison  of  these  things  previously  studied 
separately,  so  as  to  bring  out  their  resemblances  and  differences. 

One  single  observation  accurately  made  and  described  is  of  more  value 
mentally  to  the  pupil  than  many  anecdotes  and  illustrations. 

It  is  not  the  teacher,  but  the  pupil  who  ought  to  make  the  description 
of  the  things  under  observation ;  that  is,  the  thing  he  has  himself  observed, 
not  the  things  with  which  he  has  burdened  his  memory  without  observation. 

Repeating  from  memory  things  not  observed  by  tlie  pupils  themselves, 
and  mere  reciting  of  school-book  information,  are  the  wrong  ways  of 
teaching. 

Before  commencing  lessons  in  Form,  the  pupils  should  be  led  to  under- 
stand the  Senses ;  and  should  have  such  lessons  upon  objects  as  will  lead 
them  to  appreciate  such  words  as  object,  length,  height,  breadth,  depth,  and 
thickness.  In  this  connection  they  may  be  led  to  understand  the  use  of 
the  word  dimensions. 

Possibly  a  course  of  lessons  in  Size  would  be  the  best  preparation  for 
the  study  of  Form. 

Through  all  the  work  the  teacher  must  guard  against  haste.  In  a 
lesson  lasting  twenty,  or  even  thirty  minutes,  a  class  of  young  children 
will  seldom  learn  more  than  three  new  termS,  and  any  attempt  to  hurry 
them  must  result  in  their  gaining  words  without  the  underlying  ideas. 

They  should  always  be  led  to  appreciate  the  necessity  for  a  new  word 
before  it  is  given  them. 

In  order  that  children  may  acquire  early  habits  of  correct  expression, 
the  teacher  must  have  them  pronounce  very  distinctly,  and  must  be  care- 
ful that  they  make  full  statements. 

Fragmentary  answers  or  remarks  indicate  indistinct  ideas  as  well  as 
disconnected  thoughts. 

As  a  means  of  cultivating  the  judgment,  as  well  as  of  holding  the 
attention  of  all  the  children,  frequent  class  decision  is  judicious. 

The  teacher's  confirmation  of  correct  judgment  should,  of  course, 
immediately  follow  a  class  decision,  as  no  child  should  be  permitted  to 
remain  uncertain  whether  he  is  right  or  wrong. 

The  teacher  must  arrange  the  matter  for  dr  velopment  as  clearly  and 
concisely  as  possible,  and,  before  meeting  her  (^lass,  must  make  a  definite 
plan  for  each  lesson ;   yet  she  must  take  care  that  this  plan  shall  admit 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  H 

such  modifications  as  circumstances  may  require.  A  box  of  forms  is,  of 
course,  necessary,  and  in  connection  with  the  forms  the  teacher  will  make 
use  of  many  familiar  objects  as  means  of  illustration. 


LESSOX  I. 

OBJECT. 

'Vo  cwXiivsiie  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Memory,  and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  give  terms,  Surface,  Faces,  Straight  and  Curved 
Faces,  Edge  {Straight  and  Curved). 


MATTER,  General  Statements. 

1.  That  part  of  an  object  which  we  can  see  or  touch  is  called  the  surface- 

2.  The  different  inclinations  of  a  surface  produce  faces. 

3.  A  face  whose  direction  is  always  the  same  is  called  a  straight  face. 

4.  A  face  whose  direction  changes  continually  is  called  a  curved  face, 

5.  The  meeting  of  tioo  faces  forms  an  edge. 

6.  The  meeting  of  two  straight  faces  forms  a  straight  edge. 

7.  The  meeting  of  two  curved  faces  forms  a  curved  edge. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  a  box  to  class.)     What  have  I  ? 

Child.  You  have  a  box. 

T.  (Passing  her  hand  over  it,  taking  care  to  touch  every  part.)    Wliat 

am  I  doing  to  this  box  ? 
Ch.  You  are  touching  the  box. 
T.  How  do  you  know  that  ? 
Ch.  I  can  see  you  touching  it. 

T.  What  senses  are  you  using  in  order  to  know  that? 
Ch.  I  am  using  the  sense  of  sight. 
T.  You  may  touch  the  box.     (Ch.  does  so,  T.  taking  care  that  she 

passes  her  hand  over  every  part.) 
T.  How  many  senses  has  John  used  in  examining  this  box  ? 
Ch.  He  has  used  two  senses,  sight  and  touch.    (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  Then  what  has  John  done  to  the  box? 
Ch.  John  has  seen  and  touched  the  box. 


12  •  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

T.  You  may  show  me  some  other  part  of  this  box  which  you  can  see 
and  touch. 

Ch.  I  cannot. 

T.  Why? 

Ch.  I  cannot  get  at  it. 

T.  You  may  show  me  the  part  of  this  ball  which  you  can  see  and 
touch.  (Ch.  does  so ;  other  children  showing  parts  of  slate,  desk, 
etc.,  passing  their  hands  carefully  over  the  parts.) 

T.  Who  can  tell  me  whether  those  objects  have  parts  which  we  can- 
not see  and  touch  ? 

Ch.  They  have,  but  we  cannot  get  at  them.  (Class  decision.  T.  con- 
firm.) 

T.  Who  knows  what  that  part  of  an  object  which  we  can  see  and 
touch  is  called?  (Ch.  may  say  the  outside,  but  the  teacher  cor- 
rects that  by  opening  a  box  and  showing  that  they  may  see  or 
touch  the  inside  of  some  objects ;  then  she  gives  the  term  surface, 
which  the  class  repeat,  the  teacher  taking  care  that  they  pronounce 
the  word  distinctly.) 

T.  What  is  a  surface  ? 

Ch.  That  part  of  an  object  which  we  can  see  or  touch  is  called  the  sur- 
face.    (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  Show  me  the  surface  of  your  slate,  desk,  ball,  etc.  (Ch.  does  so, 
each  time  making  statement.  This  is  the  surface  of  the  slate, 
This  is  the  surface  of  the  ball,  etc.  T.  drills  until  she  is  certain 
that  the  term  is  understood  ;  then  children  read  written  definition.) 

T.  (Passing  her  hand  over  one  side  of  box.)     What  am  I  doing  ? 

Ch.  You  are  touching  one  side  of  the  box. 

T.  (Passing  her  hand  over  another  part  of  box.)  What  am  I  doing  now  ? 

Ch.  You  are  touching  another  part  of  the  box. 

T.  Compare  the  direction  of  the  part  I  am  now  touching  with  the  di- 
rection of  the  part  which  I  first  touched,  and  tell  what  you  think. 

Ch.  The  direction  of  the  part  you  are  now  touching  is  dilferent  from 
the  direction  of  the  part  you  first  touched.  (Class  decision.  T. 
confirm  and  explains,  saying :  We  call  the  different  directions  of 
these  parts  the  different  inclinations  of  the  surface.) 

T.  How  does  the  inclination  here  (at  the  side),  or  the  inclination 
here  (at  the  end),  compare  with  the  inclination  here  (at  the 
bottom)? 

Ch.  They  both  differ  from  that  inclination  (at  the  bottom).  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Show  me  the  different  inclinations  of  the  surface  of  this  object 
(presenting  different  objects  to  children,  and  leading  them  to  make 
full  statements) . 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  18 

T.  Who  can  tell  what  the  different  inclinations  of  a  surface  make? 

(produce?)      (In  answer  the  child  will  probably  give  the  word 

parts^  which  the  teacher  corrects  by  leading  him  to  see  that  any 

place  he  touches   is   a  part  of  the  whole  surface.     Then,  if  the 

child  cannot  tell,  she  gives  the  term  faces,  and  the  child  makes 

the  full  statement:     The  different  inclinations  of  a  surface  make 

(produce) /ace^.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (Presenting  objects.)     Show  me  the  faces  of  this  object.     (Ch. 

does  so,  stating  :     "  This  is  a  face,"  "  This  is  a  face,"  etc.) 
T.  (Presenting  box.)     Notice  carefully,  as   I  pass  my  hand  along 

this  face,  and  tell  me  what  is  true  of  its  change  of  direction. 
Ch.  It  does  not  change  its  direction;  or,  its  direction  is  always  the 

same.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.     T.  have  children  find  other 

faces  whose  direction  is  always  the  same.) 
T.  (Presenting  a  cup  or   bottle.)      How  does  the  direction  of  this 

face  compare  Math  the  direction  of  the  other  ? 
Ch.  It  is  different.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  does  it  differ  ? 

Ch.  The  direction  of  this  face  is  not  always  the  same. 
T.  Since  the  direction  here  is  not  always  the  same,  what  may  you 

say  this  face  does  ? 
Ch.  It  changes  its  direction.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  look  closely,  and  show  me  just  where  this  face  changes  its 

direction.     (Ch.  cannot  find  the  place,  and  at  length  states  that 

the  direction  changes  everywhere,  or  "  all  the  time,"  when  T.  asks 

for  class  decision,  which  she  confirms,  using  the  word  continually 

instead  of  the  expression  "  all  the  time.") 
T.  Who  can  tell  what  a  face,  whose  direction  is  always  the  same,  is 

called? 
Ch.  A  face  whose  direction  is  always  the  same  is  called  (T.  or  Ch. 

give  term)  a  straight  face.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write 

on  board.) 
T.  Find  several  faces  whose   direction   changes   continually.      (Ch. 

finds  several,  making  full  statements  about  them.) 
T.  What  is  a  face,  whose  direction  changes  continually,  called  ? 
Ch.  A   face,  whose  direction   changes   continually,  is  called  (T.  or 

Ch.  give  term)  a  curved  face.    (Simultaneous  recitation.    T.  write 

on  board.) 
T.  What  prevents   this   face  from   going  farther    outward   in   this 

direction?     (Passing  her  hand  over  the  top  of  the  box.) 
Ch.  The  side  face  meets  it  and  stops  it.    (Class  decision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  And  what  prevents  it  going  out  in  this  direction  ?    (Passing  hand 
over  towards  the  ends.) 


14  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

Ch.  The  end  face  meets  it  and  stops  it. 

T.  How  many  faces  meet  here  ? 

Ch.  Two  faces  meet  there. 

T.  Show  me  other  places  where  two  faces  meet.  (Ch.  does  so, 
showing  several,  and  making  full  statements.) 

T.  Who  can  tell  me  what  the  meeting  of  two  faces  makes  (forms)  ? 

Ch.  The  meeting  of  two  faces  forms  (Ch.  or  T.)  an  edge.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  How  many  kinds  of  faces  have  you  learned  ? 

Ch.  We  have  learned  two  kinds  of  faces,  straight  faces  and  curved  faces. 

T.  The  meeting  of  two  faces  forms  an  edge ;  now  what  kind  of  an 
edge  does  the  meeting  of  two  straight  faces  form  ? 

Ch.  The  meeting  of  two  straight  faces  forms  a  straight  edge,  and  the 
meeting  of  two  curved  faces  forms  a  curved  edge.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 

The  teacher  may  drill  by  having  pupils  show  her  surfaces,  faces 
(straight  and  curved),  and  edges  of  different  kinds,  and  l)y  hav- 
ing them  read  the  statements  written  on  the  board. 

Then  she  may  erase  statements,  and  have  children  recall  definitions. 

If  old  enough,  the  children  will  write  defini*iions  in  note-books. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  15 


LESSON  II. 

Note.  —  Review  lesson  of  yesterday,  taking  care  that  the  children 
understand,  as  well  as  remember,  surface,  straight  and  curved  faces,  straight 
and  curved  edges.  Then  connect  the  new  lesson  with  the  old  in  such  a 
way  that  the  child  will  hardly  realize  where  the  review  ends,  and  devel- 
opment begins. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Memory,  and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  give  terms.  Corner,  Point,  Line,  Straight  and 
Carved  Lines. 

MATTER. 

1.  The  meeting  of  three  edges  forms  a  corner. 

2.  That  which  has  position,  but  neither  length,  breadth,  nor  thickness,  is 
called  a  point. 

3.  That  which  has  length,  but  no  breadth  nor  thickness,  is  called  a  line. 

4.  A  line  whose  direction  is  always  the  same  is  called  a  straight  line. 

5.  A  line  whose  direction  continually  changes  is  called  a  curved  line. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  box.)  Observe  this  edge  (along  the  side  of  the 
box)  ;  this  one  (across  the  end)  ;  and  this  one  (tracing  thickness) ; 
and  tell  me  what  is  true  of  them  in  regard  to  each  other. 

Child.  They  come  together. 

T.  Tell  me  that  in  another  way. 

Ch.  The  three  edges  meet.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  may  show  me  three  other  edges  that  meet.  (Ch.  does  so; 
other  children  finding  the  same,  and  making  full  statements.) 

T.  Who  can  tell  me  what  the  meeting  of  three  edges  makes  (forms)  ? 

Ch.  The  meeting  of  three  edges  forms  a  (Ch.  or  T.  give  term)  corner. 
(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  Find  five  different  corners,  and  the  edges  that  meet  to  form  each. 
(Ch.  does  so,  making  full  statements.) 

T.  Look  closely  at  this  corner,  and  show  me  exactly  where  the  three 
edges  meet. 

Ch.  I  cannot  touch  the  place.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm,  showing 
that  it  is  impossible  to  touch  the  place  of  meeting  without  touch- 
ing one  of  the  edges.) 


16  LESSONS   ON  FORM. 

T.  In  connection  with  the  size  of  objects,  how  many  dimensions 
have  you  learned  ? 

Ch.  We  have  learned  three  dimensions,  length,  breadth,  and  thickness. 

T.  What  dimensions  has  this  place  where  the  three  edges  meet  ? 

Ch.  It  has  no  dimensions.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  It  has  then  no  length,  breadth,  nor  thickness ;  now  tell  me  what 
it  has. 

Ch.  It  has  place.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Who  knows  another  word  that  means  the  same  as  place  ? 

Ch.  or  2\  Position. 

T.  Now  tell  me  all  you  have  learned  about  this  place. 

Ch.  The  place  where  three  edges  meet  has  position,  but  has  neither 
length,  breadth,  nor  thickness. 

T.  Who  can  tell  me  what  that  which  has  position,  but  neither 
length,  breadth,  nor  thickness,  is  called? 

Ch.  That  which  has  position,  but  neither  length,  breadth,  nor  thick- 
ness, is  called  (Ch.  or  T.)  a  point.  (Sinuiltaneous  recitation.  T. 
write  on  board.  T.  aids  pupil  in  the  construction  of  this  defini- 
tion, as  the  expression  "  that  which"  is  unnatural  to  a  child.) 

T.  John,  you  may  make  a  point  on  the  board.     (John  makes  a  dot.) 

T.  How  many  think  that  John  has  made  a  point?  (Ch.  thinks  that 
he  has  not  done  so.) 

T.  Why  not? 

Ch.  A  point  has  position,  but  neither  length,  breadth,  nor  thickness. 
That  which  John  made,  has  length,  breadth,  and  thickness.  (Class 
decision.  T.  confirm,  showing  that  no  dot  can  be  made  so  small 
that  it  does  not  possess  all  three  dimensions.) 

T.  Now,  what  may  we  call  that  which  John  has  made  ? 

Ch.  We  may  call  it  the  picture  of  a  point.  (Class  decision.  T.  con- 
firm, also  stating  that  for  convenience  we  shall  call  it  a  point.) 

T.  (Presenting  box.)  Now  look  at  this  edge  (along  the  side),  and 
find  the  exact  place  where  these  places  meet. 

Ch.  I  cannot  find  the  exact  place.  It  seems  something  like  the 
point.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  has  this  place  that  the  point  has  not  ? 

Ch.  It  has  length. 

T.  How  does  it  resemble  the  point  ? 

Ch.  It  has  no  breadth  nor  thickness.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  do  we  call  that  which  has  length,  but  no  breadth  nor 
thickness  ? 

Ch.  That  which  has  length,  but  no  breadth  nor  thickness,  is  called 
(Ch.  or  T.)  a  line.     (Simultaneous  recitation.    T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  Mary  may  make  a  line  on  the  board. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  17 

Ch.  I  cannot  make  a  line. 

T.  Why  not? 

Ch.  What  I  make  has  breadth  and  thickness. 

T.  What  shall  we  call  that  which  Mary  has  made? 

Ch.  We  may  call  it  a  pictm*e  of  a  line.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm, 

having  children  make  heavy  and  light  lines,  and  show  breadth  and 

thickness;  after  which  she  states  that  for  convenience  they  will 

call  those  pictures  lines.) 
T.  Out  of  what  do  we  get  a  point  ? 
Ch.  Out  of  a  corner,  we  get  a  point. 
T.  Out  of  what  do  we  get  a  line  ? 
Ch.  Out  of  an  edge,  we  get  a  line. 
T.  How  many  classes  of  edges  have  you  learned? 
Ch.  We  have  learned  two  classes  of  edges,  straight  and  curved  edges. 
T.  Then  how  many  classes  of  lines  do  you  think  there  are  ? 
Ch.  There  are  two  classes  of  lines,  straight  and  curved  lines.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  fJohn  may  make  three  straight  lines,  while  Mary  may  make  three 

curved  lines,  on  the  board.     (Children  do  so,  other  children  stating 

what  they  have  done.) 
T.  What  is  a  straight  line  ? 
Ch.  A  line  whose  direction  is  alw^ays  the  same  is  called  a  straight,  line. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  AVhat  is  a  curved  line  ? 
Ch.  A  line  whose  direction  continually  changes  is  called  a  curved 

line.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

Remark.  —  Drill  by  having  pupils  make  pictures  of  corner,  point, 
line  (straight  and  curved),  while  others  identify  each,  and  others  read 
definitions  from  the  board.  Then  erase  work,  remove  objects,  and  have 
pupils  recall  what  they  have  learned,  and,  if  able  to  write,  have  them 
write  definitions  in  their  books,  paying  particular  attention  to  penman- 
fihip,  use  of  capital  letters,  punctuation,  and  spelling.  If  pupils  cannot 
keep  a  note-book,  have  them  copy  the  new  terms  they  have  learned  on 
the  slate,  and  make  pictures  of  them. 

Note.  —  After  teaching  straight  and  curved  lines,  it  will  be  well  to 
teach  crooked  or  broken  lines  and  compound  curves.  Here  there  is 
nothing  new,  and  the  teacher  can  easily  lead  the  child  to  see  that  a 
broken  line  is  made  up  of  different  straight  lines,  or  of  straight  and 
curved  lines  together,  while  a  compound  curve  is  composed  of  two  oJ 
more  simple  curves. 


18  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

LESSON    III. 

Review  Corner,  Point,  Line,  (Straight  and  Curved). 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perceptio?i,  Conception,  Comparison,  Memory/,  and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of  the  different  kinds  of  straight  lines,  and  give  the 
terms  Horizontal,  Vertical,  and  Oblique. 

MATTER. 

1.  A  straight  line  that  extends  upward  and  downward,  and  inclines  neither 
to  the  right  nor  to  the  left,  is  called  a  vertical  line. 

2.  A  straight  line  that  extends  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  and  inclines 
neither  upward  nor  doionward,  is  called  a  horizontal  line. 

3.  A  straight  line  that  extends  both  upward  and  downward,  and  inclines 
both  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  is  called  an  oblique  line. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  ruler  with  straight  edges.)     Look  at  this  edge ; 

observe  what  I  am  doing,  and  tell  me  what  is  true  of  its  direction 

(slowly  tracing  from  bottom  upward). 
Child.  It  goes  upward. 

T.  Tell  me  that,  using  another  word  instead  of  goes. 
Ch.  (or  T.)  It  extends  upward. 

T.  (Tracing  edge  downward.)     Now  what  is  true  of  its  direction  ? 
Ch.  It  extends  downward. 

T.  Then  in  what  direction  does  this  edge  extend  ? 
Ch.  It  extends  both  upward   and   downward.     (Class   decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  And  what  is  true  of  its  inclination  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  ? 
Ch.  It  does  not  incline  to  the  right  nor  to  the  left.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  tell  me  what  you  have  learned  about  the  direction  of  this 

edge. 
Ch.  It  extends  upward  and  downward,  and  does  not  incline  to  the- 

right  nor  to  the  left.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  would  you  make  a  picture  of  this  edge  ? 
Ch.  I  should  draw  a  line  on  the  board. 
T.  In  order  that  it  should  be  a  true  picture  of  this  edge,  what  must 

be  true  of  its  direction? 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  19 

Ch.  It  must  extend  upward  and  downward,  and  incline  neither  to  the 
right  nor  left. 

T.  You  may  draw  such  a  line.  (Ch.  does  so ;  class  decision  that  it  Is 
a  true  picture.) 

T.  Now  you  may  tell  me  in  full  what  he  has  done. 

Ch.  He  lias  drawn  a  straight  line  which  extends  upward  and  down- 
ward, and  inclines  neither  to  the  right  nor  to  the  left. 

T.  Who  knows  the  name  of  a  line  of  which  this  is  true? 

Ch.  A  straight  line  that  extends  upward  and  downward,  and  inclines 
neither  to  the  right  nor  to  the  left,  is  called  a  vertical  line.  (If  neces- 
sary, T.  gives  term  vertical.)  (Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write 
on  board.) 

2\  (Presenting  ruler  in  different  position.)  In  what  direction  does 
this  edge  extend  now  ? 

Ch.  It  extends  to  the  right. 

T.  In  what  other  direction  does  it  extend?  ^ 

Ch.  It  also  extends  to  the  left.  ^ 

T.  And  what  is  true  of  its  inclination  in  this  direction  ?  (Upward 
and  downward.) 

Ch.  It  does  not  incline  upward  nor  downward.  (If  children  have  any 
difficulty  with  the  words  inclination  and  incline,  the  teacher  will  use 
the  word  bending  or  leaning  until  they  perceive  the  meaning  of 
inclination.^ 

T.  Xow  tell  me  what  you  have  learned  about  the  direction  of  this  edge. 

Ch.  It  extends  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  and  inclines  neither  upward 
nor  downward. 

T.  You  may  make  a  picture  of  this  edge.    (Ch.  draws  a  horizontal  line.) 

T.  AVhat  has  she  done? 

Ch.  She  has  drawn  a  line  that  extends  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  and 

(a &)  inclines  neither  upward  nor  downward.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 

T.  I  shall  name  this  line  a,  h,  and  IMary  may  make  three  others  like 
it,  and  name  with  other  letters.  (Ch.  does  so,  other  children  giv- 
ing full  description  of  each.) 

T.  Xow  we  need  the  name  for  this  line ;  w^ho  can  give  it? 

Ch.  A  straight  line  that  extends  to  the  right  and  to  the  left,  and  in- 
clines neither  upward  nor  downward,  is  called  (Ch.  or  T.)  a  hori- 
zontal line.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  wTite  on  board.) 

T.  Mary  may  draw  on  the  board  three  vertical  lines,  and  Ann  may 
draw  three  horizontal  lines.  (Children  do  so,  other  children  stat- 
ing what  they  have  done.) 

T.  (Presenting  edge  in  a  different  position.)  In  what  direction  does 
this  edge  extend  ? 


20  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

Ch.  It  extends  upward  and  downward. 

T.  And  what  is  true  of  its  inclination  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  ? 

Ch.  It  inclines  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left. 

T.  Tell  me  then  all  that  you  observe  in  regard  to  the  direction  of 

this  edge. 
Ch.  It  inclines  to  the  right  or  to  the  left.    (Class  decision.   T.  confirm.) 
T.  Mary  may  make  a  picture  of  this  edge.     (Ch.  does  so,  drawing 

an  oblique  line,  and,  by  direction  of  the  teacher,  naming  it  7n,  n.') 
T.  Describe  the  line  711,  n,  as  to  direction. 

Ch.  The  line  m,  n.     It  inclines  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left. 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  from  that  description,  and  give  the 

name  of  such  a  line  ? 
Ch.  A  straight  line  that  inclines  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  is 

called  (Ch.  or  T.)  an  oblique  line.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T. 

write  on  board.) 

l4ll  by  having  children  make  different  kinds  of  straight  lines  and 
name  each,  and  by  having  children  read  and  copy  definitions  from  the 
board.  Then  erase  work,  remove  objects,  and  have  them  recall  what 
they  have  learned. 

Note.  —  If  the  children  are  old  enough,  it  will  be  well,  for  the  sake 
of  future  work  in  Geometry,  to  teach  the  mathematical  as  well  as  the 
child's  definitions  of  the  different  kinds  of  straight  lines. 

1.  A  line  pointing  to  the  centre  of  the  earth  is  called  a  vertical  line. 

2.  A  line  parallel  ivifk  the  horizon  is  called  a  horizontal  line. 

3.  A  line  which  is  neither  vertical  nor  horizontal  is  called  an  oblique  line. 

Even  with  more  advanced  pupils  it  will  be  best  to  develop  first  the 
child's,  and  afterwards  the  mathematical,  definitions. 

As  soon  as  children  have  learned  the  different  kinds  of  straight  lines, 
work  in  designing  may  be  begun.  Instead  of  giving  them  home  tasks 
to  commit  to  memory,  such  work  as  the  following  may  be  assigned. 

•    1.  Make  as  many  different  designs  as  you  can,  using  two  straight 
lines;  three;  four;  five;  etc. 

2.  Bring  me  to-morrow  three  different  designs,  made  by  using  two 
vertical  and  two  horizontal  lines. 

3.  Make  five  different  designs,  using  two  horizontal,  three  vertical,  and 
two  oblique  lines. 


LESSONS  ON   FORM.  21 

LESSON  IV. 

Review  carefully  vertical,  horizontal,  and  oblique  lines. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Memory,  and  Lan- 
guage. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea   of,  and  teach,  Parallel,   Converging,  and  Diverging 
lines. 
MATTER. 

1.  Lines  that  are  the  same  distance  apart  throughout  their  length  are 
called  parallel  lines. 

2.  Liiies  that  are  not  the  same  distance  apart  throughout  their  length,  but 
which  come  together  (converge)  in  one  direction,  and  separate  (diverge) 
in  the  other  direction,  are  called  converging  or  diverging  lines. 

J      g        Teacher.    (Drawing    vertical    parallel    lines   on   the  board.) 


y  What  have  I  done  ? 


Child.  You  have  drawn  two  vertical  lines,   and  named  them 

A  and  B. 
T.  Now  I  touch  the  line  ^  at  a  certain  point  x,  and  opposite 
X  I  touch  the  point  y  in    the  line  B.      I  join  these  two 
points  by  a  straight  line.      What  does  the  line  xy  show? 
Ch.  Line  xy  shows  the  distance  between   the  lines  A  and  B. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  I  take  two  points,  m  and  n,  opposite  each  other,  in  the  lines 
A  and  B.     I  join  these  points  by  a  straight  line.     What  does  the 
line  mn  show  ? 
Ch.  Line  mn  shows  distance  between  the  lines  A  and  B. 
T.  How  does  the  distance  between  the  lines  A  and  B,  shown  by  line 

xy,  compare  with  the  distance  shown  by  mn  ? 
Ch.  The  distance  between  the  lines  A  and  B,  shown  by  line  xy,  is  the 
same  as  the  distance  shown  by  the  line  mn.      (Class  decision.     T. 
confirm.) 
T.  Now  I  take  two  other  points  i  and  r,  opposite  each  other  in  lines 
A  and  B,  and  join  these  points.     How  does  the  distance  shown  by 
ir  compare  with  the  distance  shown  by  xy,  or  mn  f 
Ch.  The  distance  shown  by  the  line  ir  is  the  same  as  that  shown  by 

xy  or  mn.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Compare  these  distances  with  the  distance  shown  by  st  or  ov. 
Ch.  Those  distances  are  the  same  as  those  shown  by  st  and  ov.     (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.") 


22 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


T.  At  how  many  places  in  the  Imes  A  and  B  have  we  found  those 

distances  the  same? 
Ch.  We  have  found  those  distances  the  same  at  five  places. 
T.  Suppose  I  join  other  opposite  points  in  the  lines  A  and  B,  how 

will  the  distances  compare  with  those  we  have  found  ? 
Ch.     They  will  be  the  same.      (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Through  how  much  of  the  length  of  A  and  B  will  they  be  the 


~.    2 


I       I       I       I 


Ch.  They  will  be  the  same  through  their  whole  length. 

T.  Thinking  of  this,  then  what  is  true  of  the  lines  A  and  B'i 

Ch.  Lines  A   and  B  are  the  same   distance  apart  throughout  their 

length.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  AVho   can   make   other   lines    that   are   the   same   distance  apart 
throughout  their  length? 

Ch.  I  can  make  horizontal  lines  that  are  the  same 

distance  apart  throughout  their  length. 
T.  You  may  do  so,  and  Mary  may  make  lines  in 
some  other  direction  that  are  the  same  distance 
apart  throughout  their  length,  while  Jane  may 
make  others  of  which  this  is  true.  (Children  do 
so,  drawing  the  lines  which  show  the  distances, 
and  stating,  I  have  made  two  horizontal,  two 
oblique,  or  two  curved  lines  that  are  the  same 
distance  apart  throughout  their  length.) 
T.  AVho  can  tell  me  what  lines  of  which  this  is  true 

are  called? 
Ch.  Lines  that  are  the  same  distance  apart  through- 
out their   length    are   called  (child   or   teacher) 
parallel    lines.      (Simultaneous    recitation.      T. 
write  on  board.) 
T.  Look  at  these  lines  A  and  B,  and  tell  me  whether 

they  are  parallel  lines. 
Ch.  They  are  nOt  parallel  lines.     They  are  nearer 

together  at  the  top  than  they  are  at  the  bottom. 
T.  Tracing  the   lines  A  and  B  upward,  what  do 

they  do  in  regard  to  each  other  ? 
Ch.  They  come  together. 
T.  And  tracing  the  lines  C  and  D  downward,  what 

do  they  do  in  regard  to  each  other  ? 
Ch.  They  come  together  toward  the  bottom. 
T.  Who  knows  a  word  that  we  may  use  instead  of  come  together  ? 
Ch.  (or  T.)  Converge. 
T.  In  how  many  directions  do  the  lines  A  and  B  converge  ? 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  28 

Ch.  They  converge  in  one  direction. 

T.  And  in  how  many  directions  do  the  lines  C  and  D  converge? 

Ch.  They  converge  in  one  direction. 

T.  Then  what. kind  of  lines  may  we  call  them? 

Ch.  We  may  call  them  converging  lines.    (Class  decision.   T.  confirm.) 

T.  Compare  the  direction  in  which  I  am  now  tracing  the  lines  A  and 

B  with  the  direction  in  which  I  traced  them  before. 
Ch.  You  are  tracing  A  and  B  in  the  opposite  direction  from  which 

you  traced  them  before.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  And  what  do  these  lines  do  now  in  regard  to  each  other? 
Ch.  They  go  apart  (separate). 
T.  What  word  may  we  use  which  means  the  same  as  go  apart,  and 

sounds  better? 
Ch.  or  T.  Diverge. 
T.  Now  tell  me  what  is  true  of  the  lines  A  and  B,  thinking  of  the 

direction  in  which  I  am  tracing  them. 
Ch.  The  lines  A  and  B  diverge  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in 

which  they  converge. 
T.  Look  at  C  and  Z>,  and  tell  me  what  is  true  of  them  in  this  respect. 
Ch.  Lines  C  and  D  also  diverge  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  in 

which  they  converge. 
T.  Thinking  of  this,  what  kind  of  lines  may  we  call  them? 
Ch.  We  may  call  them  diverging  lines.     (Class  decision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  tell  me  all  you  have  learned  in  regard  to  lines  A  and  B,  and 

C  and  D. 
Ch.  Lines  A  and  B  converge  in  one  direction  and  diverge  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  and  lines  C  and  D  converge  in  one  direction  and 

diverge  in  the  opposite  direction. 
T.  Thinking  of  this,  what  kind  of  lines  may  we  call  them  ? 
Ch.  We  may  call  them  converging  and  diverging  lines.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  define  converging  and  diverging  lines  ? 
Ch.  Lines  which  are   not  the  same  distance  apart  throughout   their 

length,  but  which  converge    in  one  direction  and  diverge  in  the 

opposite    direction,    are    called    converging   and    diverging    lines. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write  on  board.) 
Drill  by  having  children  make  different  kinds  of  parallel  lines,  differ- 
ent converging  and  diverging  lines;  by  having  them  describe  those 
already  on  the  board,  and  by  reading  and  copying  in  note-books  written 
definitions ;  after  which  erase  work,  close  books,  and  have  them  recall 
what  they  have  learned. 

Assign,  to  be  brought  in  next  day,  a  design  made  up  of  two  parallel 
lines  (or  more),  and  two  or  three  converging  and  diverging  lines.     If  the 


24  LESSONS   ON   FORM. 

children's  ideas  of  drawing  and  designing  are  vague,  and  if  drawing  is 
taught  in  the  school,  it  would  be  better  for  the  teacher  to  assign  this 
work  in  designing  for  the  drawing  hour,  when  she  can  aid  and  direct  the 
work,  so  that  it  may  be  done  intelligently. 

Note.  —  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remind  the  teacher  that  the  correct 
way  of  measuring  parallel  lines  is  to  find  the  shortest  distance  between 
opposite  points,  and  the  line  joining  these  points  is  perpendicular  to  the 
parallel  lines. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  25 


LESSON  T. 


Review  Parallel,  Converging,  and  Diverging  Lines. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Memory,  and   Lan- 
guage. 

POINT. 

To   develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Angle,  Right   Angle,  Perpendicular 
Line,  Acute  and  Obtuse  Angle. 

MATTER. 

1.  The  opening  bettaeen  two  lines,  made  to  look  like  a  knife  when  it  is  partly 
open,  is  called  an  angle. 

2.  The  opening  between  two  lines,  made  to  look  like  a  knife  when  it  is  half 
way  open,  is  called  a  right  angle. 

8.  A  line  which  meets  another  line  so  as  to  form  right  angles,  is  called  a 
2)erpendicular  line. 

4.  The  opening  betiveen  two  lines,  made  to  look  like  a  knife  when  it  is  less 
than  half  way  open,  is  called  an  acute  angle. 

5.  The  opening  between  tivo  lines,  made  to  look  like  a  knife  when  it  is 
more  than  half  way  open,  is  called  an  obtuse  angle. 

Matter  for  Mathematical  Definitions  of  the  Same. 

1.  The  divergence  between  two  lines  in  the  same  plane  is  called  an  angle. 

2.  When  a  line  meets  another  line  so  as  to  form  equal  angles  on  the  same 
side  of  that  line,  each  angle  is  called  a  right  angle. 

3.  A  line  which  meets  another  line  so  as  to  form  right  angles,  is  called  a 
perpendicular  line. 

^.  An  angle  whose  divergence  is  less  than  that  of  a  right  angle,  is  called 

an  acute  angle, 
b.  An  angle  whose  divergence  is  greater  than  that  of  a  right  angle,  is 

called  an  obtuse  angle. 

Note.  —  The  teacher  will  observe  that  the  child's  definitions  are  de- 
veloped first,  and  afterwards  the  mathematical  definitions  of  the  same. 
It  will  probably  be  necessary  to  divide  this  lesson  into  two,  if  not  three, 
school  lessons. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  a  pocket  knife  closed.)     What  is  this? 


26 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


Child.  It  is  a  knife. 

T.  (Opening  it.)     What  have  I  done  ? 

Ch.  You  have  opened  the  blade. 

T.  Then  what  may  you  say  of  the  knife  ? 

Ch.  It  is  open. 

T.  Is'ame  the  parts  of  this  knife. 

Ch.  The  parts  of  that  knife  are  the  blade  and  the  handle. 

T.  (Pointing-  to  opening.)     What  is  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  the  opening  between  the  blade  and  the  handle. 

T.  How  would  you  make  a  picture  of  this  knife  as  you  see  it  now  ? 

Ch.  I  should  draw  two  lines  with  an  opening  between  them.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Mary  may  do  so.     (Ch.  does  so.)     What  has  she  done? 
Ch.  She  has  drawn  two  lines  to  look  like  an  open  knife. 
T.  What  do  the  lines  represent  ? 
Ch.  They  represent  the  blade  and  the  handle. 
T.     (Pointing  to  opening.)     What  is  this? 
Ch.  That  is  the  opening  between  the  lines. 
T.  The  opening  between  what  lines  ? 

Ch.  The  opening  between  the  lines  made  to  look 
like  a  knife  when  it  is  open. 

T.  Who  can  make  a  definition  from  that  de- 
scription ? 

Ch.  The  opening  between  two  lines,  made  to  look 
like  a  knife  when  it  is  open,  is  called  (Ch.  or 
T.)  an  angle.  (Simultaneous  recitation.  T. 
write  on  board.) 

T.  Who  can  make  other  angles? 

Ch.  (Makes  several.) 

T.  Show  me  the  angle  in  each. 

Ch.  The  opening  between  the  lines  is  the  angle. 

XoTE.  —  T.  may  here  give  terms  vertex  and  sidesy 
taking  care  to  show  that  the  point  where  the 
lines  meet  is  the  vertex,  while  the  lines  them- 
selves are  the  sides  of  the  angle. 


a 


T.  Look  at  the  knife  now  and  tell  me  how  it  is. 

Ch.  It  is  open. 

T.  How  far  open  is  it? 

Ch.  It  is  half  way  open. 

T.  John  may  make  a  picture  of  it  as  it  is  now. 

(John  does  so.) 
T.  Describe  the  opening  in  that  picture. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


27 


a 


Ch.  It  is  the  opening  between  two  lines  made  to  look  like  a  knife 

when  it  is  half  way  open. 
T.  Who  can  make  a  definition  from  that  description  ? 
Ch.  The  opening  between  two  lines,  made  to  look  like  a  knife  when  it 
is  half  way  open,  is  called  (Ch.  or  T.)  a  right  angle.    (Simultaneous 
recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

(f  T.  (Drawing  a  line.)     What  have  I  done  ? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line,  and  named  it  ab. 
T.  (Drawing  another.)     And  what  have  I  done 

now? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  another  line,  and  named 

it  cd. 
T.  Where  have  I  drawn  cd  in  regard  to  ab  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  cd  to  meet  ab  in  point  d. 
T.  By  drawing  these   lines   in  this  way,  what 

have  I  made  ? 
Ch.  You  have  made  two  angles. 
T.  And  what  kind  of  angles  are  they  ? 
Ch.  They  are  right  angles.     (Class  decision.    T. 

confirm.) 
T.  Who  else  can  draw  a  line  to  meet  another 
line  so  as  to  form  right  angles?     (Ch.  draws 
several,  stating  each  time.  This   line  meets 
another  line  so  as  to  form  right  angles.) 
T.  Who  knows  a  name  for  a  line  which  meets 

another  line,  so  as  to  form  right  angles  ? 
Ch.  A  line  which  meets  another  line,  so  as  to 
form  right  angles,  is   called  (Ch.  or   T.)  a 
perpendicular  line.     (Simultaneous  recitation. 
T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  Look  at  this  knife  again,  and  tell  me  what  is 

true  of  it  in  regard  to  the  opening. 
Ch.  It  is  less  than  half  way  open.     (Class  de- 
cision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  make  a  picture  of  it?     (Ch.  does 
so,  stating,  This  is  the  opening  between  two 
lines  made  to  look  like  a  knife  less  than  half 
way  open.) 
T.  Who  can   make  a  definition  to  fit  that  de- 
scription ? 

Ch.  The  opening  between  two  lines,  made  to  look  like  a  knife  when  it 
is  less  than  half  way  open,  is  called  an  acute  angle.  (Simultaneous 
recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


(t 


\ 


T.  Look  at  the  knife  now,  and  tell  me  what  is  true  of  it. 

Ch.  It  is  more  than  half  way  open. 

T.  Make  a  picture  of  it,  and  speak  of  the  opening. 

Ch.  This  is  the  opening  between  two  lines  made 
to  look  like  a  knife  when  it  is  more  than  half 
way  open. 

T.  John  may  make  the  definition. 

Ch.  The  opening  between  two  lines,  made  to  look 
like  a  knife  when  it  is  more  than  half  way 
open,  is  called  (Ch.  or  T.)  an  obtuse  angle. 
(Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write  on  board.) 
Drill  as  usual,  then  proceed  to  develop  the 
mathematical  definitions  of  angle,  right-angle, 
perpendicular  line,  acute  and  obtuse  angles.) 

T.  (Referring  to  first  angle  on  the  board.) 
Compare  the  direction  of  these  lines  jim  and 
om,  and  tell  me  what  is  true  of  them. 

Ch.  They  have  different  directions.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  shows  that  they  have  different  direc- 
tions ? 

Ch.  The  opening  shows  it. 

T.  Then  what  is  this  opening  between  the 
lines  ? 

Ch.  It  is  the  difference  of  direction  between  the 
lines.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Who  knows  one  word  that  we  may  use  in- 
stead of  "  difference  of  direction  "  ?  (Ch. 
does  not  know.     T.  gives  term  divergence.) 

T.  Now  what  is  this  opening? 

Ch.  It  is  the  divergence  between  two  lines. 

T.  Observe  the  surface  of  this  board,  and  tell 
what  kind  of  surface  it  is. 

Ch.  It  is  a  smooth  surface,  or  level  surface,  (if 
Ch.  gives  smooth,  flat,  or  level  surface,  the 
T.  may  give  instead  the  word  plane)  or  plane 
surface. 
T.  Then  compare  the  position  of  these  two  lines,  nm  and  om,  in  regard 

to  the  plane. 
Ch.  They  are  in  the  same  plane.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Thinking  of  this,  speak  of  the  divergence. 

Ch.  It  is  the  divergence  between  two  lines  in  the  same  plane.     (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


29 


a 


T.  Who  can  make  a  definition  from  that  de- 
scription ? 
Ch.  The  divergence  between  two  lines   in   the 

same  plane  is  called  an  angle.     (Simultaneous 

recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (Again  referring  to  previous  work  in  right 

angles.)     How  is  cd  drawn  in  regard  to  dbl 
Ch.  cd  is  drawn  to  meet  ah. 
T.  And  what  has  been  formed  ? 
Ch.  Two  angles  have  been  formed. 
T.  Where   are   those   angles   in  regard    to    the 

line  a6? 
Ch.  They  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  line  ah. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  do  those  angles  compare  in  size  ? 
Ch.  They  are  equal.     (Class   decision.     T.  con- 
firm.) 
T.  Now  state  carefully  what  is  true  of  cd. 
Ch.  Line  cd  meets  the  line  ah,  so  as  to  form 

equal  angles  on  the  same   side   of  line   ah. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  who  can  make  the  definition  of  these 

angles  ? 
Ch.  When  a  line  meets  another  line  so  as  to  form 

equal  angles  on  the  same  side  of  that  line, 

each  of  the  angles   is   called  a  right  angle. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.    T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  Who  can  give  me  the  name  of  a  line  which 

meets  another  line  so  as  to  form  right  angles? 
Ch.  A  line  which  meets  another  line  so  as  to 

form    right   angles   is   called  a  (Ch.  or  T.) 

perpendicular  line.     (Simultaneous  recitation. 

T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (referring  to   acute   angle.)     How  does  the 

divergence  of  "this  angle  compare  with  that 

of  the  right  angle  ? 
Ch.  The  divergence  of  that  angle  is  less  than 

that    of    a    right    angle.       (Class    decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Thinking  of  this,  who  can  make  a  definition  ? 
Ch.  An  angle  whose  divergence  is  less  than  that 

of  a  right  angle  is  called  an  acute  angle. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.   T.  write  on  board.) 


30-  LESSONS   ON   FORM. 


T.  (Referring  to  obtuse  angle.)     How  does  the 

divergence  of  this  angle  compare  with  that 

of  a  right  angle  ? 
Ch.  The  divergence  of  that  angle  is  greater  than 

that    of    a    right    angle.      (Class    decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  ? 
Ch.  An  angle  whose  divergence  is  greater  than 

that  of  a  right  angle  is  called  an  obtuse  angle. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.    T.  write  on  board.) 

Drill  by  having  children  make  different  an- 
gles and  describe,  and  by  reading  and  copying 
written  definitions.  Then  erase  work,  remove 
objects,  close  books,  and  have  them  recall  what 
they  have  learned. 

As  an  exercise  in  designing,  ask  children  to 
make  a  design  containing  right  angles  only ;  one 
containing  two  acute,  two  obtuse,  and  two  right 
angles.  The  combinations  that  may  be  made 
with  angles  are  endless.  Two  or  three  weeks  of 
profitable  work  in  drawing  may  be  devoted  to 
the  study  of  angles,  while  little  problems  such 
as  the  following  may  be  given.  Find  the  num- 
ber of  angles  that  can  be  made  with  two,  three, 
four,  five,  or  six  lines. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


31 


LESSON  VI. 

Review  Angle,  Right,  Acute,  and  Obtuse,  Angle,  and  Perpendicular  Line. 
It  the  teacher  has  not  in  the  last  lesson  taught  adjacent  angles,  they  can 
be  taught  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  lesson. 


o\m 


OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,   Conception,  Comparison,  Memory,  and  Lan- 
guage. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach.  Adjacent,  Vertical,  Alternate,  and  Oppo- 
site angles. 

MATTER. 

1.  Angles  which  have  one  common  vertex,  and  one  common  side,  are  called 
adjacent  angles. 
y.  2.    When  one  line  intersects  another  line,  the  angles 

which  are  not  adjacent  are  called  vertical  angles. 

3.  If,  on  the  same  side,  a  line  is  draicn  to  each  ex- 
tremity of  a  given  line,  the  angles  thus  formed 
are  called  opposite  angles. 

4.  If,  on  opposite  sides,  a  line  be  drawn  to  each  ex- 
tremity of  a  given  line,  the  angles  thus  formed 
are  called  alternate  angles. 


METHOD. 

T.  (Drawing  a  line  on  board.)     What  have   I 

done? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  he. 
T.  (Again  drawing   a   line.)       And   now   what 

have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  ad  to  meet  6c  in  the 

point  d. 
T.  And  what  have  I  formed? 
Ch.  You  have  formed  two  angles  o  and  m. 
T.  What  is  the  vertex  of  angle  o  ? 
Ch.  d  is  the  vertex  of  angle  o. 
T.  And  what  is  the  vertex  of  angle  m? 
Ch.  d  is  the  vertex  of  angle  m. 
T.  Then  what  is  tPoGTof  tKe  arri^^les  o  and  7/4? 
Ch.  They  ha^  the  same  vertex. 

(fuHIVBRSITTi) 


a 


Aq. 


LESSONS   ON   FORM. 


d 


t\.m 


u^n 


T.  Who  can  tell  me  that  in  another  way? 

Ch.  (or  T.)  They  have  one  common  vertex. 

T.  Look  carefully  and  tell  me  whether  you  see 

anything  else  that  angles  o  and  m  have  in 

common.  / 

Ch.  Angles  o  and  m  have  one  common  side  ad. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  have  you  learned  about  angles  o  and  m  ? 
Ch.  They  have   one  common  vertex,   and   one 

common  side. 
T.  Who  can  make  other  angles  that  have  one 

common    vertex     and     one    common    side? 

(Children  make  several,  each  stating  what  he 

has  done.) 
T.  Who  knows  what  we  need  now  ? 
Ch.  We  need  a  definition.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  You  may  make  it. 
Ch.  Angles  which  have  one  common  vertex,  and 

one  common  side,  are  called  (T.  give  term) 

adjacent  angles.      (Simultaneous    recitation. 

T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (Drawing  line.)     What  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  al. 
T.  (Again  drawing  a  line.)     And  what  have  I 

done  now  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  cd. 
T.  Where  is  cd  in  regard  to  ah  ? 
Ch.  cd  crosses  ah. 
T.  You  may  use  the  word  intersects,  instead  of 

crosses.     (Explains  meaning  of  intersects.') 
Ch.  Line  cd  intersects  the  line  ah. 
T.  Wliat  have  I  formed  ? 
Ch.  You  have  formed  four  angles,  m,  n,  u,  t. 
T.  Thinking   of   what    you  have    just   learned, 

what  kind  of  angles  are  m  and  n? 
Ch.  w  and  71  are  adjacent  angles.    (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Find  other  adjacent  angles. 
Ch.  n  and  u  are  adjacent  angles,  u  and  t  are  ad- 
jacent angles,  and  t  and  m  are  adjacent  angles. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Find  angles  which  are  not  adjacent. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


33 


UrJL 


a 


d 


m 


Ch.  m  and  u  aro  not  adjacent,  and  n  and  t  are 
not  adjacent  angles. 

T.  How  have  those  angles  been  formed  ? 

Ch.  They  have  been  formed  by  one  line  inter- 
secting another  line. 

T.  Now  who  can  make  a  definition  ? 

Ch.  When  one  line  intersects  another  line,  the 
angles  which  are  not  adjacent  are  called  (T. 
give  term)  vertical  angles.  (Simultaneous 
recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  (Drawing  a  line.)     What  have  I  done? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  be. 

T.  And  now  what  have  I  done  ? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  Une  ab  to  meet  be  in 
point  b. 

T.  Where  in  regard  to  be  have  I  drawn  ab  ? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  ab  to  one  end  of  be. 

T.  You  may  use  some  other  word  that  will 
mean  the  same  as  end. 

Ch.  (or  T.)  Extremity. 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  ab  to  one  extremity  of  be. 

T.  (Drawing  line  dc.)  And  what  have  I  done 
now? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  line  de  to  the  other  ex- 
tremity of  be. 

T.  How  many  lines  have  I  drawn  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  &c? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  one  line  to  each  extremity 
of  be.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Compare  the  position  of  those  two  lines  ab 
and  dc  in  regard  to  be. 

Ch.  ab  and  de  are  on  the  same  side  of  be.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  By  drawing  these  lines   in  this  way,  what 

have  I  formed  ? 
Ch.  You  have  formed  two  angles,  o  and  m. 
T.  Describe  fully  how  these   angles  have  been 

formed. 
Ch.  By  drawing  on  the  same  side  a  line  to  each 
extremity  of  a  given  line,  you  have  formed 
angles  o  and  m. 
T.  You  may  make  other  angles  in  the  same  way. 
(Ch.  does  so,  stating  fully  what  he  has  done.) 


34 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


// 


T.  If,  on  the  same  side,  a  line  be  drawn  to  each 
extremity  of  a  given  line,  what  are  the  an- 
gles thus  formed  called  ? 
Ch.  If,  on  the  same  side,  a  line  be  drawn  to  each 
extremity  of   a  given    line,  the  angles   thus 
formed  are  called  opposite  angles.     (Simulta- 
neous recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (Drawing  a  line.)     What  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line,  be. 
T.  (Drawing  ab.)     And  what  have  I  done  now  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  line  ab  to  one  extremity  of 

be. 
T.  (Drawing  de.)     And  what  have  I  done  now  ? 
Ch.  You   have   drawn   line  ilc  to  the  other  ex- 
tremity of  be. 
T.  How   many  lines   have    I   drawn    to  the  ex- 
tremities of  be  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  one  line  to  each  extremity 

of  be. 

T.  Compare  the  position  of  ab  and  dc  in  regard 
to  be. 
Ch.  ab  and  dc  are  on  opposite  sides  of  be.     (Ch.  may  say  they  are  not 
on  the  same  side  of  be,  when  T.  will  lead  him  to  say  on  opposite 
sides.     Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  By  drawing  these  lines  in  this  way,  what  have  I  formed  ? 
Ch.  You  have  formed  two  angles,  ni  and  n. 
T.  Describe  fully  how  these  angles  have  been  formed. 
Ch.  By  drawing,  on  opposite  sides,  a  line  to  each  extremity  of  a  given 
line,  you  have  formed  two   angles  m  and  n.     (Class  decision.     T. 
confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  from  that  description? 
Ch.  or  T.  If,  from  opposite  sides,  a  line  be  drawn  to  each  extremity 
of  a  given  line,  the  angles  thus  formed  are  called  (T.  give  term) 
alternate  angles.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
Drill  by  having  children  make  different  angles  and  describe  fully  j 
by  T.  making  them  and  having  children  identify ;  by  having  them  read 
and  copy  definitions  in  note-books.     Then  erase  work,  close  books,  and 
have  them  recall  what  they  have  learned. 

Assign,  as  home  work,  designs  in  which  a  limited  number  of  specified 
angles  are  to  be  used.  It  is  needless  to  suggest  that  particular  care 
should  be  given  to  neatness  and  correctness  of  werk  in  designing.  The 
best  designs  should  be  preserved  in  portfolios,  where  the  whole  class  can 
upon  occasion  examine  them.     The  papers  used  should  be  all  of  the 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  35 

same  size,  and  at  first  should  be  about  eight  inches  long  by  ten  wide. 
Pencils  should  be  attended  to.  If  the  children  are  small,  an  hour  in 
school  had  better  be  given  to  this  work  in  order  that  the  teacher  may 
direct  it. 

As  a  preparation  for  Greometry,  the  child  may  now  be  led  to  the  con- 
clusions that,  if  one  of  two  adjacent  angles  is  a  right  angle,  the  other 
must  be  a  right  angle  also ;  or,  if  one  be  acute,  the  other  must  be  obtuse ; 
or,  if  one  be  ob^se,  the  other  must  be  acute ;  and  that : 

1.  The  value  of  the  sum  of  two  adjacent  angles  equals  iivo  right  angles. 

2.  The  value  of  the  sum  of  all  the  angles  having  a  common  vertex^  on  the 
same  side  of  a  given  line,  equals  ttvo  right  angles. 

3.  The  value  of  all  the  angles  round  a  given  point  (having  a  common 
vertex)  equals  four  right  angles. 

Also,  the  child  may  be  led  to  see  that  vertical  angles  are  equal ;  that 
the  value  of  the  sum  of  two  opposite  angles  between  parallel  lines  equals 
two  right  angles ;  that  alternate  angles  between  parallel  lines  are  equal. 

It  is  possible  that  some  teachers  may  be  startled  at  the  idea  of  little 
children  solving  problems  in  geometry ;  but,  in  fact,  they  are  only  learn- 
ing to  use  their  eyes,  and  to  state  what  they  cannot  help  seeing  if  they 
do  use  them.  The  child  does  not  know  that  he  is  studying  geometry ; 
he  only  knows  that  he  is  each  day  making  delightful  discoveries  in  re- 
gard to  common  things. 


36 


LESSONS   ON   FOKM. 


LESSON    VII. 


Review  all  of  previous  work  in  Form,  taking  care  to  have  children 
understand  and  remember  what  has  been  developed.  Take  as  much 
time  a^  may  he  necessary,  and  do  not  hurry  the  children. 

Triangles. 
OBJECT.  • 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Memory,  and 
Language.  * 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Triangle,  Right-angled,  Acute-angled, 
and  Ohtuse-angled  Triangles. 

MATTER. 

1.  A  space  enclosed  hy  three  sides  is  called  a  triangle. 

2.  A  triangle  having  one  right  angle  and  two  acute  angles  is  called  a  right- 

angled  triangle. 

3.  A  triangle  having  one  obtuse  angle  and  two  acute  angles  is  called  an 

ohtuse-angled  triangle. 

4.  A  triangle  lohich  has  all  its  angles  acute  is  called  an  acute-angled  tri- 

angle. 

METHOD. 

T.  (Arranging  three  rulers  to  form  a  triangle.) 

When  you  were  little  boys  and  girls,  you  all 

liked  to  play  with  sticks,  and  you  often  placed 

them  as  I   am  doing  now.     What  were  you 

playing  then  ? 
Ch.  We  were  playing  at  building  houses.    (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  are  the  parts  of  this  house  ? 
Ch.  The  walls  and  the  room  inside  are  the  parts 

of  that  house. 
T.  What  are  the  walls  ? 
Ch.  The  sticks  are  the  walls,  and  the  place  shut 

in  by  the  sticks  is  the  room. 
T.  Who  can  use  one  word  that  will  mean  the 

same  as  "  shut  in  "  ? 
Ch.  (or  T.)  Enclosed. 
T.  Who  can  use  a  word  that  will  mean  the  same 

as  "room"? 
Ch.  (or  T.)  Space. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


37 


T. 

Ch 


T. 

Ch 


T. 

Ch 

T. 

Ch 

T. 

Ch 
T. 

Ch 
T. 
Ch 
T. 
Ch 
T. 
Ch 

T. 

Ch 
T. 


The  spac3  enclosed  by  the  sticks  is  the  room. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
By  how  many  sticks  is  this  space  enclosed  ? 

It  is  enclosed  by  three  sticks. 
How  can  you  make  a  picture  of  this  space? 

I  can  enclose  a  space  by  three  lines  on  the 
board. 

You  may  do  so,  and  in  describing  what  you 
have  done,  use  another  word  instead  of  lines. 
.  This  is  a  space  enclosed  by  three  sides. 
(Other  children  make  several,  each  stating 
what  he  has  done.) 
Who  can  tell  what  such  a  space  is  called? 

A  space  enclosed  by  three  sides  is  called 
(T.  give  term)  a  triangle.  (Simultaneous 
recitation.  T.  write  on  board.  Explain 
meaning  of  the  word  triangle.) 
By  enclosing  a  space  by  three  sides,  what 
have  you  formed  ? 

,  I  have  formed  angles.     (Class  decision.     T. 
confirm.) 

How  many  angles  has  a  triangle? 
.  A  triangle  has  three  angles.     (Class  decis- 
ion.    T.  confirm.) 

(Making  a  right-angled  triangle.)    What  have 
I  done  ? 

You  have  made  a  triangle. 
Look  carefully  at  it,  and  compare  it  with  the 
first  one  you  made. 

It  is  different  from  the  one  I  made. 
How  does  it  differ? 

It  has  a  right  angle. 
How  many  right  angles  has  it? 
.  It  has  one  right  angle ;  the  angle  m. 
What  kind  of  angles  are  the  other  two? 
.  They  are  acute  angles.     (Class  decision.     T. 
confirm.) 

Thinking  of  what  you  have  observed,  describe 
this  triangle  fully. 

.  That  triangle  has  one  right  angle  and  two 
acute  angles. 

Who  can  make  other  triangles  of  which  this 
is  true  ? 


S8 


LESSONS   ON   FORM. 


(Children  make  several,  each  stating  what  he  has 
done.) 

T.  What  do  we  need  now  ? 

Ch.  We  need  the  definition  and  the  name  of 
that  triangle.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Who  can  make  it  ? 

Ch.  A  triangle  having  one  right  angle  and  two 
acute  angles  is  called  (T.  give  term)  a  right- 
angled  triangle. 

T.  (Making  an  obtuse-angled  triangle.)  What 
have  I  done  now  ? 

Ch.  You  have  made  a  triangle  which  has  one 
obtuse  angle.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  kind  of  angles  are  the  other  two  ? 

Ch.  They  are  acute  angles. 

T.  Describe  this  triangle. 

Ch.  That  triangle  has  one  obtuse  angle  and  two 
acute  angles. 

2\  Who  can  make  the  definition? 

Ch.  A  triangle  having  one  obtuse  angle  and  two 
acute  angles  is  called  an  ohtuse-cmgled  trian- 
gle. (Sinuiltaneous  recitation.  T.  write  on 
board.) 

T.  (Making  an  acute-angled  triangle.)  What  is 
true  of  the  angles  of  this  triangle  ? 

Ch.  All  of  the  angles  of  that  triangle  are  acute. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Make  other  triangles  of  which  this  is  true. 
(Children  make  several,  each  stating  what  he 
has  done.) 

T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  to  suit  that 
description  ? 

Ch.  A  triangle  which  has  all  its  angles  acute  is 
called  an  acute-angled  triangle.  (Simultane- 
ous recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

Drill  by  having  children  make  different  triangles,  and  by  having 
others  identify ;  by  showing  forms  and  having  them  describe ;  and  by 
having  them  read  and  copy  definitions  on  the  board.  Then  erase  work, 
close  books,  remove  objects,  and  have  them  recall  what  they  have 
learned. 


Note.  —  The  teacher  may,  by  this  time,  be  able  to  lead  children  to 
«tate  that  the  description  must  always  precisde  the  definition,  as  the  latter 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  39 

depends  entirely  upon  the  former,  thus  establishing  in  them  a  habit  of 
careful  investigation  before  deducing  principles. 

As  Work  in  Inventive  Drawing. 

1.  Bring  in  a  design  composed  of  the  three  different  triangles  you 
have  learned.  (May  repeat  either  of  the  elements,  if  necessary,  but 
have  only  these  three  elements.) 

2.  Decorate  a  right-angled  triangle  with  obtuse  angles. 

3.  Make  a  design  composed  entirely  of  obtuse-angled  triangles,  and 
decorate  with  right  angles. 

Note.  —  It  will  be  well  now  to  lead  the  children  to  the  idea  that  each 
design  is  for  some  purpose.  It  may  be  for  a  figure  in  wall-paper.  It 
may  be  for  a  border  m  frescoing  or  stencilling.  It  may  be  for  a  figure  for 
a  carpet  or  a  mat,  or  for  oil-cloth,  or  for  iron  fence,  etc.  The  teacher 
should  procure  pieces  of  calico,  paper,  carpets,  etc.,  in  which  the  designs 
can  be  examined,  and  lead  the  children  to  study  the  elements  employed. 


40 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


LESSON   VIII. 

Review  Triangle,  Right-angled,  Obtuse-angled,  and  Acute-angled  Triangles 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Memory,   and  Lan- 
guage. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Equilateral,  Isosceles,  and  Scalene  Tri- 
angles; Base,  Vertex,  and  Altitude  of  a  triangle. 

MATTER. 

1.  A  triangle  having  all  its  sides  equal  is  called  an  equilateral  triangle. 

2.  A  triangle  having  two  of  its  sides  equal  is  called 
an  isosceles  triangle. 

3.  A  triangle  having  three  unequal  sides  is  called  a 
scalene  triangle. 

4.  The  side  upon  which  the  triangle  rests  (stands) 
is  called  the  base  of  a  triangle. 

5.  The  vertex  of  the  angle  opposite  the  base  is 
called  the  vertex  of  a  triangle. 

6.  The  perpendicular  distance  from  the  vertex  to 
the  base  (or  to  the  base  produced)  is  called  the 
altitude  of  a  triangle. 


METHOD. 

Teacher.   (Presenting  form.)     What  is  this? 

Child.  It  is  a  triangle. 

T.  Compare  the  sides  with  each  other. 

Ch.  Its  sides  are  equal. 

T.  How  many  of  its  sides  are  equal  ? 

Ch.  All  its  sides  are  equal.  (Class  decision.  T. 
confirm.) 

T.  Find  other  triangles  of  which  this  is  true, 
and  make  pictures  of  them  on  the  board. 
(Children  make  several,  and  find  several 
among  the  forms,  each  stating,  "This  is  a 
triangle  having  all  its  sides  equal.") 

T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  from  that  de- 
scription ? 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


41 


Ch.  A  triangle  having  all  its  sides  equal  is  called 
(T.  give  term)  an  equilateral  triangle.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  Now  look  at  this  triangle,  and  tell  me  what 
is  true  of  its  sides,  in  regard  to  each  other. 

Ch.  That  triangle  has  two  of  its  sides  equal. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Find  others  of  which  this  is  true,  make  pic- 
tures of  them,  and  make  the  definition. 

Ch.  A  triangle  having  two  of  its  sides  equal 
is  called  (T.  give  term)  an  isosceles  triangle. 
(Simultaneous  recitation.   T.  write  on  board.) 

Note.  —  The  teacher  will  understand  that, 
while  some  of  the  pupils  are  seeking  among  the 
forms,  others  may  make  the  pictures  on  the 
board,  while  still  others  may  make  the  descrip- 
tion and  the  definition.  This  keeps  the  whole 
class  busy. 

T.  Look  at  this  triangle,  and  tell  me  how  many 
of  its  sides  are  equal. 

Ch.  That  triangle  has  no  equal  sides.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Since  that  is  so,  what  kind  of  sides  may  we 
call  them  ? 

Ch.  They  are  unequal  sides.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 

T.  Now  describe  this  triangle. 

Ch.  That  is  a  triangle  having  three  unequal 
sides. 

T.  Find  others  of  the  same  kind,  make  pictures 
of  them,  and  make  the  definition. 

Ch.  A  triangle  having  three  unequal  sides  is 
called  (T.  give  term)  a  scalene  triangle.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  Look  at  these  triangles  that  have  been 
made  on  the  board,  Aa&c,  /^def,  and  Anion. 
What  is  the  side  be  to  the  triangle  abc  ? 

Ch.  It  is  the  side  upon  which  the  triangle  abc 
stands  (or  rests).  (Class  decision.  T.  con- 
firm.) 

T.  Name  the  side  upon  which  triangle  dfe  rests. 

Ch.  fe  is  the  side  upon  which  triangle  dfe  rests. 


42 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


T.  And  what  is  the   side  upon  which  triangle 

man  rests  ? 
Ch.  on  is  the  side  upon  which  triangle  mon  rests. 
T.  If   we   could   move   these  triangles,  tell   me 

whether  we  could  make   them  rest   on   any 

other  sides  ? 
Ch.  They  could  rest  on  either  of  the  other  sides. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm,  illustrating  by 

means  of  forms.) 
T.  Who  knows    what  the  side  upon  which  the 

triangle  rests  is  called? 
Ch.  The  side  upon  which  the  triangle  rests  is 

called  (T.  give  term)  the  base  of  a  triangle. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  Look  at  this  triangle  abc,  and  tell  me  to  what 

I  am  pointing. 
Ch.  You  are  pointing  to  an  angle  of  the  triangle 

abc. 
T.  Where  is  this  angle,  in  regard  to  the  base  be  ? 
Ch.  It  is  just  opposite  the  base.    (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  To  what  part  of  the  angle  am  I  pointing? 
Ch.  You  are  pointing  to  the  vertex  of  the  angle. 
T.  I  am  pointing  to  the  vertex  of  what  angle  ? 
Ch.     You  are  pointing  to  the  vertex  of  the  angle 

opposite  the  base  be. 
T.  Find  the  vertex  of   the  angle   opposite   the 

base  in  each  of    the  other  triangles.     (Chil- 
dren  do  so,   stating  fully  what   they  have 

found.) 
T.  Who  can  tell  what  of  the  triangle  the  vertex 

of  the  angle  opposite  the  base  is  called  ? 
Ch.  The  vertex  of  the  angle  opposite  the  base  is 

called  (T.  give  term)  the  vertex  of  the  triamjle. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.    T.  write  on  board.) 

Note.  —  Teacher  may  here  explaiu  that  the 
angle  opposite  the  base  of  the  triangle  is  called 
the  vertieal  angle. 

T.  (Making  triangle  and  droppmg  perpendicular 

line.)     AVhat  have  I  done? 
Ch.  You  have  made  a  triangle   dbc^  and  have 

drawn  a  line  ad  inside  of  it. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


43 


T.  From  where  to  where  have  I  drawn  this  line 

acfi 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  the  line  ad  from  the  vertex 

to  the  base  of  the  triangle.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  By  drawing  this  line  ad,  what  have  I  formed 

with  the  base  ? 
Ch.  You  have  formed  angles  with  the  base. 
T.  What  kind  of  angles  are  they  ? 
Ch.  They  are  right  angles.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  Since  they  are  right  angles,  what  kind  of  a 

line  is  ad'i 
Ch.  Line  ad  is  a  perpendicular  line. 
T.  And  what  does  line  ad  show  ? 
Ch.  Line  ad  shows  the  distance  between  the  ver- 
tex and  the  base  of  the  triangle.    (Class  deci- 
sion.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  Since  ad  is  a  perpendicular  line,  what  kind  of 

distance  does  it  show? 
Ch.  ad  shows  the  perpendicular  distance  between 

the  vertex  and  the  base  of  the  triangle.    (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Show  the  perpendicular  distance  between  the 

vertex  and  the  base  in  eacli  of  these  other 

triangles.     (Children  do  so,  each  stating  what 

he  has  done.) 
T.  (Making  triangle  xyz.')     What  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  made  a  triangle  xyz. 
T.  (Producing  xy  to  m.)  What  have  I  done  now? 
Ch.  You  have  produced  the  base  to  m. 
T.  Then  what  may  you  call  ym  ? 
Ch.  ym  is  the  base  produced.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  (Dropping  perpendicular  xm.)     What  have  I 

done  now?  » 

Ch.  You   have    drawn  a  perpendicular  line  xu. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  From  where  to  where  have  I  drawn  xu  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  it  from  the  vertex  of  the  triangle  to  the  base 

produced. 
T.  What  does  the  perpendicular  line  from  the  vertex  to  the  base  pro- 
duced show  ? 


44  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

Ch.  It  shows  the  perpendicular  distance  as  before.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirni.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  and  give  the  name  for  the  perpendic- 
ular distance  from  the  vertex  to  the  base,  or  to  the  base  produced, 
of  a  triangle  ? 
Ch.  The  perpendicular  distance  from  the  vertex  to  the  base,  or  to  the 
base  produced,  of  a  triangle,  is  called  the  altitude  of  the  triangle. 
(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
Drill  by  having  children  find  or  make  the   different  triangles,  and 
name  and  describe ;  by  having  them  read  and  copy  definitions ;  by  hav- 
ing them  find  base,  vertex,  and  altitude  of  different  triangles.     Then  erase 
work,  remove  objects,  close  books,  and  have  them  recall  what  they  have 
learned. 

As  AVoRK  IN  Inventive  Drawing. 

1.  Make  a  design  for  an  iron  gate  composed  of  equilateral  triangles. 

2.  Make  a  design  for  the  border  of  a  rug,  composed  of  isosceles  tri- 

angles, decorated  with  curves. 

3.  Make  a  design  for  the  centre  of  a  table  cover  composed  of  the  three 

different  kinds  of  triangles,  repeating  each  element  as  often  as 
necessary. 

Note.  —  Teacher  will  of  course  study  such  designs  as  he  sees  around 
him,  and  lead  the  children  to  see  in  what  directions  the  elements  are  to 
be  repeated  in  different  designs ;  thus :  In  a  design  for  a  border,  repeat 
the  elements  in  a  horizontal  direction ;  for  curtains  or  for  a  wall,  repeat 
the  element  of  the  design  vertically ;  for  a  centre-piece  of  a  square,  repeat 
the  element  in  every  direction  from  a  common  centre. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


45 


LESSON  IX. 

Review  Equilateral,  IsosceleSf  and  Scalene  Triangles;  Base,  Vertex,  and 
Altitude  of  a  Triangle. 


Figures  Having  Four  Sides. 


OBJECT. 


To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Memory,  and 
Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Quadrilateral,  Parallelogram,  Square^ 
Rhotrib. 

MATTER. 

1.  A  space  enclosed  hy  four  sides  is  called  a  quadrilateral. 

2.  A  quadrilateral  having  its  opposite  sides  paral- 
lel is  called  a  parallelogram. 

3.  A  parallelogram  having  all  its  sides  equal,  and 
all  its  angles  right  angles,  is  called  a  square. 

4.  A  parallelogram  having  all  its  sides  equal,  and 
having  one  pair  of  its  opposite  angles  obtuse, 
and  the  other  pair  acute,  is  called  a  rhomh. 


METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Drawing  quadrilateral.)     What  have 

I  done? 
Child.  You  have  drawn  four  lines. 
T.  By  drawing  these  four  lines  in  this  way, 

what  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  enclosed  a  space. 
T.  What  of  the  space  may  you  call  those  lines  ? 
Ch.  Those  lines  are  the  sides  of  the  space. 
T.  Describe  this  space. 
Ch.  That  is  a  space  enclosed  by  four  sides. 
T.  Look  around  the  room  and  find  spaces  en- 
closed by  four  sides.      (Ch.   finds  several, 
stating  each  time,  "  This  is  a  space  enclosed 
'by  four  sides.") 
Who  can  make  a  definition  to  suit  that  description  ? 
.  A  space  enclosed  by  four  sides  is  called  (T.  give  term  and  ex- 
plain) a  quadrilateral.      (Simultaneous    recitation.      T.    write   on 
board.) 


46  '  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

T.  (Presenting  form.)     What  is  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  a  quadrilateral  because  it  has  four  sides.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  (Touching  one  side.)     What  am  I  doing  ? 
Ch.  You  are  touching  one  side  of  the  quadrilateral. 
T.  (Touching  other  side.)     What  am  I  doing  now? 
Ch.  You  are  touching  another  side  of  the  quadrilateral. 
T.  Where  are  those  sides  in  regard  to  each  other? 
Ch.  They  are  opposite  each  other.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Thinking  of   their  distance  apart  throughout  their  length,  what 

kind  of  sides  are  they? 
Ch.  They  are  parallel.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  (Touching  other  sides.)     What  am  I  doing  now? 
Ch.  You  are  touching  the  other  two  sides. 
T.  Where  are  tliey  in  regard  to  each  other  ? 
Ch.  They  are  opposite. 

T.  And  thinking  of  their  distance  apart,  what  is  true  of  them  ? 
Ch.  They  are  parallel. 

T.  Then  what  is  true  of  the  opposite  sides  of  this  quadrilateral  ? 
Ch.  The   opposite   sides   of   that  quadrilateral  are  parallel.      (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Find  other  quadrilaterals  of  which  this  is  true.      (Ch.  finds  sev- 
eral, making  a  full  statement  each  time.) 
T.  Make  on   the  board  a  quadrilateral    having    its  opposite  sides 

parallel.     (Ch.  does  so,  making  a  description.) 
T.  Who  can  make  a  definition  to  suit  that  description  ? 
Ch.  A  quadrilateral   having   its  opposite  sides  parallel  is  called  (T. 

give  term)  a  parallelogram.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write 

on  board.) 
T.  (Presenting  square.^     W^hat  is  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  a  parallelogram  because  its  opposite  sides  are  parallel. 
T.  Compare  the  sides  with  each  other  in  regard  to  length. 
Ch.  The  sides  are  equal  in  length.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  many  of  the  sides  are  equal  ? 
Ch.  All  the  sides  are  equal.     (Class  decisioh.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  kind  of  angles  has  this  parallelogram  ? 
Ch.  That  parallelogram  has  right  angles.    (Class  decision.   T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  many  of  these  angles  are  right  angles  ? 
Ch.  All  the  angles  of  that  parallelogram  are  right  angles.      (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Describe  this  parallelogram  fully. 
Ch.  That  parallelogram  has  all  its  sides  equal,  and  all  its  angles  right 

angles.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 


•      LESSONS  ON  FORM.  47 

T.  Look  round  the  room  and  find  other  parallelograms  of  which  this 

is  true.     (Ch.  finds  several,  describing  each.) 
T.  Make  on  the  board  three  such  parallelograms,  describe  each,  and 

then  make  the  definition. 
Ch.  (After  describing.)     A  parallelogram  having  all  its  sides  equal, 

and  all  its  angles  right  angles,  is  called  (T.  give  term)  a  square. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (Presenting  a  rhomb.)     What  is  this? 
Ch.  That  is  a  parallelogram. 
T.  How  does  it  resemble  a  square  ? 

Ch.  All  its  sides  are  equal.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  does  it  differ  from  a  square? 
Ch.  All  its  angles  are  not  right  angles. 
T.  How  many  right  angles  has  it  ? 

Ch.  It  has  no  right  angles.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  kind  of  angles  has  it  ? 
Ch.  It  has  two  acute  angles  and  two  obtuse  angles.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  do  you  call  two  objects  of  the  same  kind  ? 
Ch.  We  call  them  a  pair.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Note.  —  If  child  does  not  know  word  pair,  T.  refers  to  two  gloves 
she  wears,  two  shoes,  etc.,  and  gets  wordjaa/r. 

T.  How  many  acute  angles  has  this  parallelogram? 

Ch.  It  has  one  pair  of  acute  angles. 

T.  And  how  many  obtuse  angles  has  it? 

Ch.  It  has  one  pair  of  obtuse  angles. 

T.  What  kind  of  angles  are  the  acute  angles,  thinking  of  their  posi- 
tion in  regard  to  each  other  ? 

Ch.  They  are  opposite  angles.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  And  what  kind  are  the  obtuse  angles  ? 

Ch.  They  are  opposite. 

T.  Now,  who  can  fully  describe  this  parallelogram  ? 

Ch.  That  parallelogram  has  all  its  sides  equal,  and  has  one  pair  of 
opposite  angles  obtuse  and  the  other  pair  acute.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 

T.  (Giving  different  children  scissors  and  paper.)  Make  parallelo- 
grams of  which  this  is  true.  (Children  do  so,  describing,  while 
other  children  make  the  same  on  the  board  and  describe.) 

T.  What  do  we  need  now  ? 

Ch.  We  need  the  definition  and  the  name.  (Class  decision.  T. 
confirm.) 

T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  ? 


48-  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

Ch.  A  parallelogram  having  all  its  sides  equal,  and  having  one  pair 
of  opposite  angles  obtuse  and  the  other  pair  acute,  is  called  (T. 
give  term)  a  rhomb.  (Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write  on  board.) 
Drill  by  having  children  find  different  forme  and  identify;  by 
having  them  find  them  in  the  room,  and  make  them  with  paper ; 
and  by  having  them  read  and  copy  definitions  on  the  board.  Then 
erase  work,  remove  objects,  close  books,  and  have  children  recall 
what  they  have  learned.) 

As  Work  in  Inventive  Drawing. 

1.  Make  a  square,  and  ornament  it  with  triangles. 

2.  Make  a  design  consisting  of  rhombs. 

3.  Ornament  a  square  with  curved  lines. 

4.  Ornament  a  rhomb  with  isosceles  triangles. 

Note.  —  Teacher  may,  at  the  close  of  this  lesson,  teach  rectangle,  or 
may  leave  it  until  she  closes  work  upon  parallelograms. 

The  teacher  may  now  require  the  children  to  begin  to  make  each  a 
set  of  forms  for  himself,  cutting  them  first  from  paper,  and  afterwards 
from  wood.  If  possible,  hoys  and  girls  should  make  them  from  wood. 
It  would  be  well  to  procure  a  set  of  tools  for  the  school,  while  all  bits  of 
paper  and  wood  should  be  saved  as  material  with  which  to  work. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  49 


LESSON  X. 

Review  Quadrilateral,  Parallelogram,  Square,  and  Rhomb. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,   Conception,   Comparison,  Memory,  and  Lan^ 
guage. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Ohlong,  Rhomboid,  Trapezoid,  Trapezium, 
and  Polygon. 

MATTER. 

1.  A  parallelogram  having  one  pair  of  its  opposite  sides  longer  than  the 

other  pair,  and  having  all  its  angles  right  angles,  is  called  an  oblong. 

2.  A  parallelogram  having  one  pair  of  its  opposite  sides  longer  than  the 

other  pair,  and  having  one  pair  of  its  opposite  angles  acute,  and  the 
other  pair  obtuse,  is  called  a  rhomboid. 

3.  A  quadrilateral  having  one  pair  of  its  opposite  sides  parallel,  and  the 

other  pair  not  parallel,  is  called  a  trapezoid. 

4.  A  quadrilateral  having  none  of  its  sides  parallel  is  called  a  trapezium, 

5.  A  space  enclosed  by  three  or  more  sides  is  called  a  polygon. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  oblong.)     What  is  this  ? 

Child.  That  is  a  parallelogram. 

T.  Compare  the  sides  with  regard  to  length. 

Ch.  One  pair  of  sides  is  longer  than  the  other  pair.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Thinking  of  their  position  in  regard  to  each  other,  what  kind  of 

sides  may  you  call  this  longer  pair  ? 
Ch.  They  are  opposite  sides. 

T.  Now  make  the  statement  that  was  made  a  moment  ago. 
Ch.  One  pair  of  opposite  sides  is  longer  than  the  other  pair  of  opposite 

sides. 
T.  What  kind  of  angles  has  it  ? 
Ch.  It  has  right  angles. 

T.  How  many  of  its  angles  are  right  angles  ? 
Ch.  All  its  angles  are  right  angles. 
T.  Now  who  can  fully  describe  this  parallelogram  ? 
Ch.  That  parallelogram  has  one  pair  of  opposite  sides  longer  than  the 


50  •  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

other  pair,  and  all  its  angles  are  right  angles.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Find  (or  make)  other  parallelograms  of  which  this  is  true.     (Ch. 

find  [or  make]  several,  describing  each  time.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  based  upon  that  description  ? 
Ch.  A  parallelogram  having  one  pair  of  opposite  sides  longer  than 

the  other  pair,  and  having  all  its  angles  right  angles,  is  called  (T. 

give   term)    an   oblong.     (Simultaneous   recitation.     T.    write   on 

board.) 
T.  (Presenting  rhomboid.)     Look  carefully  at  this  form  and  describe 

it  as  fully  as  you  can. 
Ch.  That  parallelogram  has  one  pair  of  opposite  sides  longer  than  the 

other  pair,  and  one  pair  of  opposite  angles  obtuse,  and  the  other 

pair  acute.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Note.  —  If  the  previous  work  has  been  thoroughly  done,  the  teacher 
will  have  no  trouble  in  getting  the  child  to  make  this  full  description. 
In  case  he  should  fail,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  to  go  through  the 
development  questions,  as  in  the  work  upon  the  oblong. 

T.  Find  (or  make)  other  parallelograms  of  which  this  is  true. 
(Children  find  several ;  others  make  several  on  the  board,  and  cut 
them  from  paper ;  while  others  describe  each.) 

T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  from  the  description? 

Ch.  A  parallelogram  having  one  pair  of  opposite  sides  longer  thun  the 
other  pair,  and  having  one  pair  of  opposite  angles  acute  and  the 
other  pair  obtuse,  is  called  (T.  give  term)  a  rhomboid.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  (Presenting  trapezoid.)     What  is  this  ? 

Ch.  It  is  not  a  parallelogram.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  I  asked  you  what  it  is.  Thinking  of  the  number  of  sides,  what 
may  you  call  it  ? 

Ch.  It  is  a  quadrilateral.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Look  at  its  sides  carefully  and  tell  me  how  many  are  parallel. 

Ch.  One  pair  of  its  sides  are  parallel.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  A\Tiat  kind  of  sides  are  those,  thinking  of  their  position  in  regard 
to  each  other  ? 

Ch.  They  are  opposite  sides. 

T.  What  is  true  of  the  other  pair  of  opposite  sides  ? 

Ch.  They  are  not  parallel. 

T.  Now  describe  carefully  all  that  you  have  learned  about  this  quad- 
rilateral. 

Ch.  That  quadrilateral  has  one  pair  of  its  opposite  sides  parallel  and 
the  other  pair  not  parallel. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  51 

T.  Make  other  quadrilaterals  of  which  this  is  true.     (Children  do  so, 

describing  each.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  ? 
Ch.  A  quadrilateral  having  one  pair  of  its  opposite  sides  parallel,  and 

the  other  pair  not  parallel,  is  called  (T.  give  term)  a  trapezoid. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (Presenting  trapezium.)     What  is  this  ? 
Ch.  That  is  a  quadrilateral. 
T.  And  how  many  of  its  sides  are  parallel  ? 

Ch.  None  of  its  sides  are  parallel.     (Class  decision.     T,  confirm.) 
T.  Draw  on  the  board  a  quadrilateral  of  this  kind,  while  others  make 

two  or  three  from  paper.     (Children  do  so,  others  describing  fully.) 
T.  Now  we  are  ready  for  the  definition. 
Ch.  A  quadrilateral  having  none  of  its  sides  parallel  is  called  (T. 

give  term)  a  trapezium.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on 

board.) 

Note.  —  T.  may,  if  she  has  not  already  done  so,  teach  rectangle,  and 
show  that  the  square  and  oblong  come  under  this  name,  while  the  rhomb 
and  rhomboid  may  be  called  oblique-angled  parallelograms. 

T.  We  have  had  in  the  two  (or  three)  last  lessons  spaces  enclosed  by 

how  many  sides  ? 
Ch.  We  have  had  spaces  enclosed  by  four  sides. 
T.  And  before  that  we  studied  spaces  enclosed  by  how  many  sides  ? 
Ch.  Before  that  we  studied  spaces  enclosed  -by  three  sides.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Think  carefully,  and  tell  me  what  is  the  smallest  number  of  sides 

that  will  enclose  a  space. 
Ch.  (Trying  to  enclose  a  space.)     Three  is  the  smallest  number  of 

sides  that  will  enclose  a  space.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Enclose  a  space  by  more  than  four  sides.    (Children  do  so,  stating: 

This  space  is  enclosed  by  five  sides.  This  space  is  enclosed  by  six 

sides,  etc.) 
T.  (To  board.)     What  have  we  here  ? 
Ch.  That  is  a  space  enclosed  by  three  sides. 
T.  (To  another  figure.)     And  here  ? 
Ch.  That  is  a  space  enclosed  by  four  sides ;  that  one  is  enclosed  by 

five  sides ;  and  that  one  by  six  sides. 
T.  I  shall  call  the  first  A ;  the  second  B ;  the  third  C  ;  and  the  fourth 

D.     Now  we  want  a  name  for  a  space  enclosed  by  three,  four,  Jive, 

or  six  sides.     Who  can  make  the  definition  ? 
Ch.  A  space  enclosed  by  three  or  more  sides  is  called  (T.  give  term) 

a  polygon.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 


52  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

T.  (To  triangle.)     What  is  this? 

Ch.  It  is  a  polygon  having  three  sides. 

T.  By  what  other  name  do  you  know  it? 

Ch.  It  is  a  triangle. 

T.  (To  quadrilateral.)     What  is  this  ? 

Ch.  It  is  a  polygon  having  four  sides,  and  we  call  it  a  quadrilateral. 

T.  To-morrow  we  shall  find  a  name  for  a  polygon  having  five,  six, 

seven,  eight,  or  nine  sides.     You  may  be  thinking  about  them,  and 

may  bring  ine  one  of  each  kind  made  of  paper. 

Drill  by  having  children  select  and  name  different  forms,  by  having 
them  make  them,  and  by  reading  and  copying  definitions  from  the 
board.     Then  erase  work  and  have  children  recall  what  they  have  learned. 

Work  in  Inventive  Drawing. 


1.  Make  a  design  in  which  trapezoids  and  triangles  are  combined. 

2.  Ornament  a  trapezium  with  acute-angled  triangles. 

3.  Make  a  design  in  which  the  rhomb  and  square  are  combined. 

4.  Make  a  design  using  three  different  kinds  of  polygons.     Designs 
for  brackets,  wall-pockets,  or  braiding  may  be  made. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  58 

LESSON  XI. 

Review  Oblong,  Rhomboid,  Trapezoid,  Trapezium,  and  Polygon. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Memory ,  oxid.  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach.  Pentagon,  Hexagon,  Heptagon,  Octagon, 
etc.,  Regular  Polygon  and  Diagonal. 

MATTER. 

1.  A  polygon  having  Jive  sides  is  called  a  pentagon. 

2.  A  polygon  having  six  sides  is  called  a  hexagon. 

3.  A  polygon  having  seven  sides  is  called  a  hep- 
tagon. 

4.  A  polygon  having  eight  sides  is  called  an 
octagon. 

5.  A  polygon  having  equal  sides  and  equal  angles 
is  called  a  regular  polygon. 

6.  A  line  drawn  from  the  vertex  of  one  angle  in  a 
polygon  to  the  vertex  of  another  angle,  not  ad- 
jacent, is  called  a  diagonal  of  that  polygon. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  pentagon.)     What  is  this? 

Child.  That  is  a  polygon  having  five  sides. 

T.  Who  knows  a  name  for  it  ? 

Ch.  A  polygon  having  five  sides  is  called  (T. 
give  term)  a  pentagon.  (Simultaneous  reci- 
tation.    T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  (Presenting  hexagon.)  Without  making  a 
description,  make  a  definition  that  will  suit 
this. 

Ch.  A  polygon  having  six  sides  is  called  (T. 
give  term)  a  hexagon.  (Simultaneous  reci- 
tation.    T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  (Presenting  heptagon.)  Make  a  definition  to 
suit  this. 

Ch.  A  polygon  having  seven  sides  is  called  (T. 
give  term)  a  heptagon.  (Simultaneous  reci- 
tation.    T.  write  on  board.) 

T,  (Presents  octagon  without  speaking.) 


o4 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


Ch.  A  polygon  having  eight  sides  is  called  (T. 
give  term)  an  octagon.  (Simultaneous  reci- 
tation.    T.  write  on  board.) 

Note.  —  T.  may  here  get,  by  presenting 
forms,  definitions  of  nonagon,  decagon,  etc.  No 
new  development  work  is  needed  for  these  terms. 

T.  (Presenting  irregular  polygon.)     I  wish  you 
to  compare  the  sides  of  this  polygon  with  each 
other,  and  tell  me  what  you  observe. 
Ch.  Some  of  the  sides  of  that  polygon  are  longer 
than  others.    (Class  decision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  Since  that  is  true,  what  kind  of  sides  may  you  call  them  ? 
Ch.  They  are  unequal.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  compare  the  angles  of  this  polygon  with  one  another,  and  tell 

me  what  you  observe. 
Ch.  The  angles  are  unequal  also.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  describe  this  polygon. 

Ch.  That  polygon  has  unequal  sides  and  unequal  angles. 
T.  (Presenting  regular  polygon.)     Compare  the  sides  and  angles  of 

this  polygon. 
Ch.  That  polygon  has  equal  sides  and  equal  angles.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Find  other  polygons  having  equal  sides  and  equal  angles.     (Chil- 
dren find  some  among  forms,  some  make  them  on  board,  others 
make  them  with  paper,  while  others  describe  those  made.)    . 
T.  Think  of  some  polygon  that  you  have  seen  that  has  equal  sides 

and  equal  angles. 
Ch.  An  equilateral  triangle  and  a  square  have  equal  sides  and  equal 

angles.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  that  we  need  ? 

Ch.  A  polygon  having  equal  sides  and  equal  angles  is  called  (T.  give 
term)  a  regular  polygon.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on 
board.) 
T.  (Drawing  a  diagonal  in  a  quadrilateral.)     What  have  I  done  ? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  ac  in  the  polygon 

abed. 
T.  From  where  to  where  have  I  drawn  it  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  it  from  the  angles  dab  to 

the  angle  deb. 
T.  From  what  part   of   the   angle    dab  have  I 
drawn  it? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  it  from  the  vertex  of  the  angle  dab  to  the  vertex 
of  the  angle  deb.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


55 


regard  to  the   line  ab,  what  kind 


(Class  decision.     T. 


T.  Thinking  of  their  position 

of  angles  are  dab  and  cba  ? 
Ch.  Angles  dab  and  cba  are  adjacent  angles. 

confirm.) 
T.  Then  what  is  true  of  angles  dab  and  deb  in  this  respect  ? 
Ch.  They  are  not  adjacent.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Find  angles  in  this  polygon  that  are  adjacent. 
Ch.  Angles  cda  and  dab  ai'e  adjacent,  and  ade  and  deb  are  adjacent. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  tell  me  where  I  have  drawn  the  line  ac. 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  line  ac  from  the  vertex  of  one  angle  dab,  in  the 
polygon,  to  the  vertex  of  another  angle  deb, 
not  adjacent.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  (Drawing  diagonal  in  a  pentagon.)      What 

have  I  done  now? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  db  from  the  vertex 
of  one  angle  abe,  in  the  polygon  cabed,  to  the 
vertex  of  another  angle   cde,   not  adjacent. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  (Drawing   diagonal    in   a  hexagon.)     What 

have  I  done  now  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  nz  from  the  vertex  of 
one  angle  mno,  in  a  polygon,  to  the  vertex 
of  another   angle  izx,  not  adjacent.      (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  For  what  are  we  now  ready  ? 
Ch.  We  are  ready  for  a  definition  and  a  name. 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  ? 
Ch.  A  line  drawn  from  the  vertex  of  one  angle 
in  a  polygon  to  the  vertex  of  another  angle 
not  adjacent  is  called  (T.  give  term)  a  diagonal 
of  that  polygon.     (Simultaneous  recitation. 
T.  write  on  board.) 


Drill,  by  having  children  make,  or  select  from  among  forms,  regular 
and  irregular  polygons,  regular  and  irregular  pentagons,  hexagons,  hepta- 
gons, etc ;  and  by  having  them  read  and  copy  definitions  from  the  board. 
Then  erase  work,  close  books,  remove  objects,  and  have  children  recall 
what  they  have  learned. 


Work  in  Inventive  Drawing. 

1.  Ornament  a  hexagon  with  curved  lines. 

2.  Make  a  design  composed  of  regular  pentagons. 

3.  Ornament  a  heptagon  with  triangles. 


56 


LESSONS  ON   FORM. 


Note.  —  If  the  teacher  intends  carrying  on  the  work  in  Geometry,  he 
may  now  teach  angles  in  relation  to  polygons ;  viz. :  interior,  exterior,  and 
reentrant  angles,  and  may  assign  such  elementary  problems  lor  solution 
as  the  following :  — 

1.  Find  the  greatest  number  of  diagonals  that 
can  be  drawn  in  a  quadrilateral,  in  a  pentagon, 
in  a  hexagon,  in  a  heptagon,  etc. 

2.  Find  the  rule. 

3.  How  many  and  what  kind  of  figures  have  you 
made  by  drawing  these  diagonals? 


1.  In  the  quadrilateral? 

2.  In  the  pentagon  ? 
8.  In  the  hexagon? 

4.  In  the  heptagon  ? 

5.  How  many  interior  angles  can  be  made  in  a 
polygon? 

6.  What  is  the  greatest  number  of  reentrant 
angles  that  can  be  made  in  any  polygon, 
quadrilateral,  pentagon,  hexagon,  heptagon  ? 

7.  What  is  the  greatest  number  of  exterior  angles 
in  any  polygon,  triangle,  quadrilateral,  penta- 
gon, hexagon,  heptagon? 

How  does  one-  exterior  angle  of  a  triangle 
compare  with  the  interior  angles  of  the  same 
triangle  ?  or  prove  that  one  exterior  angle  of 
a  triangle  equals  the  sum  of  the  two  interior 
angles  not  adjacent. 

What  is  the  value  of  the  sum  of  the  interior 
angles  of  a  triangle  ? 

"SVliat  is  the  value  of  the  sum  of  the  interior 
angles  of  any  polygon  ? 

What  is  the  value  of  the  sum  of  the  exterior 
angles  of  any  polygon  ? 

How  does  the  reentrant  angle  of  a  quadri- 
lateral compare  with  the  Interior  angles  not 
adjacent? 


Review  carefully   all    work 
figui-es. 


upon    straight-line 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  57 


LESSON  XII. 

It  would  be  well,  before  going  farther,  to  spend  several  days  in  review- 
ing work  upon  straight-line  forms. 

.    Circles. 
OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Judgment,  and 
Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,    and  teach,  Circle,  Circumference,    Center,  ArCf 
Semi-Circumference,  and  Quadrant. 

MATTER. 

1.  A  space  enclosed  by  a  curved  line,  all  points  of  which  are  equally  dis- 
tant from  one  point  within,  is  called  a  circle. 

2.  The  curved  line  is  called  the  circumference. 

3.  The  point  within  the  circle,  from  which  all  points 
in  the  circumference  are  equally  distant,  is 
called  the  center  of  a  circle. 

4.  A  part  of  the  circumference  is  called  an  arc  of 
a  circle. 

5.  An  arc  which  is  half  a  circumference  is  called 
a  semi-circumference. 

6.  An  arc  that  is  one  quarter  of  a  circumference  is 
called  a  quadrant. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Describing  a  circle.)     What  have   I 

done  ? 
Child.  You  have  drawn  a  curved  line. 
T.  By  drawing  this   curved  line   in  this  way, 

what  have  I  done? 
Ch.  You  have  enclosed  a  space. 
T.  (Touching  center.)     What  have  I  done? 
Ch.  You  have  touched  a  point  in  (within)  the 

space. 
T.  (Drawing  radius.)     What  have  I  done  now? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  from  the  point  within  the  space  to  a  point 
in  the  curved  line.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 


58  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

T.  (Drawing  another  line.)     What  have  I  done  now? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  another  line  from  the  point  within  to  a  point  in 

the  curved  line. 
T.  How  do  those  lines  compare  in  length  ? 
Ch.  They  are  equal.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  do  these  lines  show  ? 
Ch.  They  show  distance  from  points  in  the  curved  line  to  a  pomt 

within  the  space.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  do  these  points  in  the  curved  line  compare  with  each  other 

in  regard  to  distance  from  the  point  within  ? 
T.  (Drawing  other  lines.)  What  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  other  lines,  .showing  distances  from  points  in 

the  curved  line  to  the  point  within.    (Class  decision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  do  those  distances  compare  with  the  others  and  with  one 

another? 
Ch.  They  are  the  same.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
r.  If  I  were  to  draw  other  lines  from  points  in  the  cui'ved  line  to 

this  point  within,  what  would  be  true  of  the  distance  of  those 

points  from  the  point  within? 
Ch.  All  points  in  the  curved  line  would  be  equally  distant  from  the 

point  within  the  space.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Suppose  I  should  take  another  point  n  within  the  space,  tell  me 
whether   all   points  in   the   curved  line   are 
equally  distant  from  that  point  within  ? 
Ch.  All  points  in  the  curved  line  are  unequally 
distant   from   that   point   within   the   space. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.). 
T.  How  many  points  within  the  space  are  there 
from  which  all  points  in  the  curved  line  are 
equally  distant  ? 
Ch.  There  is  only  one  such  point.     (Class  decision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  Thinking  of  that,  you  may  describe  this  space  as  fully  as  you  can. 
Ch.  That  is  a  space  enclosed  by  one  curved  line,  all  points  of  which 

are  equally  distant  from  one  point  within.     (T.  aids  Ch.  in  the 

construction.     "  All  points  of  which,"  being  rather  umiatural  to  a 

child.) 
T.  Who   else  can  make  a  space  of  this  kind  and  describe?     (Ch. 

makes  one  on  the  board  as  nearly  like  as  possible,  and  describes.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  to  suit  that  description? 
Ch.  A  space  enclosed  by  a  curved  line,  all  points  of  which  are  equally 

distant   from   a   point  within,  is   called    (T.  give  term)  a  circle. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  Show  me  which  part  is  the  circle. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


59 


Ch.  The  space  is  the  circle. 

T.  (To  circumference.)     What  is  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  the  curved  line  which  bounds  the  circle. 

T.  Who  knows  what  it  is  called  ? 

Ch.  The    curved   line   is   called    (T.   give   term)    the   circxmference. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
r.  (To  center.)     What  is  this? 

Ch.  That  is  the  one  point  within  the  circle  from  which  all  points  in 
the  circumferance  are  equally  distant.     (Class  decision.     T.  con- 
firm.) 
T.  Who  knows  a  name  for  this  point  ? 

Ch.  The  point  within  the  circle  from  which  all  points  in  the  circum- 
ference are  equally  distant  is  called  (T.  give 
term)  the  center  of  a  circle.     (Simultaneous 
recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (Touching    circumference.)     What    have    I 

done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  taken  point  a  in  the  circumfer- 
ence. 
T.  (Touching   another  point.)      What    have   I 
c  done  now  ? 

Ch.  You  have  taken  another  point  h  in  the  circumference. 
T.  (Joining  a  and  h.)     What  have  I  done  now  ? 
Ch.  You  have  joined  a  and  h  by  a  straight  line. 
T.  What  have  I  done  to  the  circumference  ? 
Ch.  You  have  divided  it  into  two  parts. 
T.  (To  a,  6»)     AVhat  is  ah  of  the  circumference  ? 
Ch.  It  is  a  part  of  the  circumference. 
T.  And  M'^hat  is  ach  ? 
Ch.  ach  is  a  part  of  the  circumference. 
T.  Who  knows  what  a  part  of  the  circumference  is  called  ? 
Ch.  A  part  of   the  circumference  is  called   (T.  give  term)  an  arc. 
(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

T.  (Drawing  diameter.)     What  have  I  done  to 
d  the  circumference  now  ? 

Ch.  You   have   divided   the   circumference  into 
two  arcs,  adh  and  ach.     (Class  decision.     T. 
confirm.) 
T.  How  does  arc  adb  compare  with  arc  ach  ? 
Ch.  Arc  adh  is  equal  to  arc  ach.    (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  To  how  much  of  the  circumference  is  arc  adb 
equal? 


60  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

CJi.  Arc  adh  is  equal  to  one-half  of  the  circumference,  and  arc  acb  is 

equal  to  one-half  of  the  circumference. 
T.  Make  a  definition  to  suit  that  description. 
Ch.  An  arc  that  is  equal  to  one-half  of  a  circumference  is  called  (T. 

give   term)    a  semi-circumference.     (Simultaneous   recitation.      T. 

write  on  board.) 
T.  (Drawing   radius.)     What    have   I   done   to  the  semi-circumfer- 
ence adh  ? 
Ch.  You  have  divided  it  into  two  parts,  ad  and  dh. 
T.  What  may  you  call  ad'i 
Ch.  It  is  an  arc. 

T.  How  does  arc  ad  compare  with  arc  dhl 
Ch.  Arc  ad  is  equal  to  arc  db.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  does  arc  ad  or  db  compare  with  the  semi-circumference  adb 

or  acb  ? 
Ch.  Arc  ad  or  db  is  equal  to  one-half  the  semi-circumference  adb  or 

acb.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  does  arc  ad  or  db  compare  with  the  whole  circumference  ? 
Ch.  Arc  ad  or  db  is  equal  to  one-quarter  of  the  whole  circumference. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  we  need? 
Ch.  An  arc  that  is  one-quarter  of  a  circumference  is  called  (T.  give 

term)  a  quadrant.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

Drill  by  having  pupils  make  different  parts  and  identify,  and  by 
having  them  read  and  copy  definitions.  Then  erase  work  and  have  them 
recall  what  they  have  learned. 

Work  in  Inventive  Drawing. 

1.  Make  a  design  consisting  of  circles. 

2.  Make  a  border  of  circles. 

3.  Ornament  a  circle  with  arcs. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


61 


LESSON  XIII. 

Review    Circle,    Circumference,    Center,   Arc,    Semi-Circumference,    and 
Quadrant. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Judgment,  and 
Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Radius,  Diameter,  Chord,  Tangent. 


MATTER. 

1.  A  line  drawn  from  the  center  to  a  point  in  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  is  called  a  radius. 

2.  A  line  draivn  from  one  point  in  the  circumfer- 
ence, through  the  center  to  another  point  in  the 
circumference  of  a  circle,  is  called  a  diameter 
of  a  circle. 

3.  A  line  which  is  drawn  from  one  point  in  the 
circumference  to  another  point  in  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle,  and  does  not  pass  through 
the  center,  is  called  a  chord  of  a  circle. 

4.  A  line  drawn  so  as  to  touch  the  circumference  of 
a  circle  in  but  one  place  is  called  a  tangent  of 
a  circle. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Describing  circle.)    Whathavel  done? 

Child.  You  have  made  a  circle. 

T.  (Drawing  radius.)     What  have  I  done  now? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  ah. 

T.  From  where  to  where  have  I  drawn  it  ? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  it  from  the  center  of  the 
circle  to  a  point  in  the  circumference. 

T.  You  may  make  a  circle  and  draw  a  line 
similar  to  ah.  (Child  does  so,  stating,  1  have 
drawn  a  line  from  the  center  to  a  point  in  the 
circumference  of  this  circle.) 

T.  Who  can  make  a  definition  from  that  de- 
scription ? 


62 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


Ch.  A  line  drawn  from  the  center  to  a  point  in  the  circumference  of 
a  circle  is  called  (T.  give  term)  a  radius. 
(Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write  on  board.) 
(T.  explains  that  the  plural  of  radius  is  radii; 
then  drawing  other  radii  in  the  same  and  in 
equal  circles,  also  in  circles  unequal  to  the 
first,  she  has  the  pupils  compare,  and  leads 
them  to  the  conclusion  that  all  radii  in  the 
same  or  equal  circles  are  equal.) 
T.  (Describing    circle   and   drawing   diameter.) 

What  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  made  a  cu-cle,  and  drawn  a  line 

in  it. 
T.  From  where  to  where  have  I  draw  n  the  line  ? 
Ch.  You  have  drawn  the  line  from  one  point  in 
the  circumference  to  another  point  in  the  cir- 
cumferehce. 
T.  Where  is  that  line  in  regard  to  the  center  ? 
Ch.  It  i^asses  through  the  center.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Describe  that  line  fully,  as  to  where  it  is  drawn. 
Ch.  That  line  is  drawn  from  one  point  in  the  circumference  through 

the  center  to  another  point  in  the  circumference. 
T.  You  may  draw  a  line  in  a  circle  in  the  same  way.     (Ch.  does  so, 

stating  what  he  has  done.) 
Tr  Who  can  make  a  definition  to  suit  the  description  ? 
Ch.  A  line  drawn  from  one  point  in  the  circumference  through  the 
center  to  another  point  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  is  called 
(T.  give  term  and  explain  meaning)  a  diameter  of  a  circle.    (Simul- 
taneous recitation.     T.  write  on  board.     T.  here  leads   children 
to  state  that  a  diameter  is  equal  in  length  to  two  radii,  and  that  all 
diameters  in  the  same  or  equal  circles  are  equal.) 
1\  (Drawing  chord  in  a  circle.)     What  have  I  done  ? 

Ch.  You  have  drawn  a  line  from  one  point  in  the 
circumference  to  another  pomt  in  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle. 
T.  Where  is  this  line  in  regard  to  the  center  ? 
Ch.  It  does  not  pass  through  the  centre. 
T.  Describe  this  line  fully,  thinking  of  where  it 

is  drawn. 
Ch.  That  line  is  drawn  from  one  point  in  tho 
circumference  to  another  point  in  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle,  and  does  not  pass  through 
the  center.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  63 

T.  You  may  draw  another  line  in  the  same  circle  similar  to  the  one  I 
have  drawn,  and  describe.     (Ch.  does  so,  describing  fully.) 

T.  What  do  we  need  now  V 

Ch.  We  need  a  definition  and  a  name. 

T.  You  may  make  the  definition. 

Ch.  A  line  which  is  drawn  from  one  point  in  the  circumference  to 
another  point  in  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  and  does  not  pass 
through  the  center,  is  called  (T.  give  term)  a  chord  of  a  circle. 
(Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write  on  board.  T.  may  show  that 
a  diameter,  according  to  this  definition,  is  not  a  chord,  though  it  is 
sometimes  called  the  greatest  chord  in  a  circle.) 

T.  (Drawing  a  tangent.)     What  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  made  a  circle  and  drawn  a  line  ah. 

C'\"  T.  Where  is  the  line  in  regard  to  the  circle  ? 

^\  Ch.  It  is  outside  of  the  circle  (near  to  the  circle). 

\  T.  How  near  the  circle  is  it  ? 

]  Ch.  It  touches  the  circumference. 

/  T.  In  how  many  places  does  it  touch  the  cir- 

y  cumf  erence  ? 

Ch.  It  touches  the  circumference  in  one  place. 
T.  Tell  me  whether  you  think  it  can  be  made  to 
touch  the  circumference  in  more  than  one  place? 
Ch.  It  can  touch  the  circmiiference  in  but  one  place. 
T.  Draw  a  line  similar  to  this,  and  describe.     (Child  does  so,  stating : 

This  line  touches  the  circuuiference  in  but  one  place.) 
T.  l^ow  you  may  make  the  definition  based  on  that  description. 
Ch.  A  lino  drawn  so  as  to  touch  the  circumference  of  a  circle  in  but 
ono  place  is  called  (T.  give  term)  a  tangent  of  a  circle.     (Simul- 
taneous recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
Drill  by  having  children  make  circles,  draw  and  describe  different 
lines,  and  by  having  them  copy  and  read  definitions  on  the  board.     Then 
erase  work,  remove  objects,  and  have  them  recall  what  they  have  learned  ? 

Work  in  Inventive  Drawing. 

1.  Make  a  design  in  circles,  ornamenting  with  curved  lines. 

2.  Ornament  a  circle  with  chords. 

3.  Ornament  a  circle  with  triangles. 

4.  Ornament  a  circle  with  arcs. 

5.  ]\IakG  a  design  in  quadrants. 

Questions  for  Geometry. 

1.  What  is  the  gratest  number  of  radii  that  can  be  made  in  a  circle 

of  diameters  ? 

2.  Greatest  number  of  spaces  that  can  be  made  by  the  intersection  of 
two  circles,  of  three,  of  four,  of  five,  of  six  ? 


64 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


LESSON  XIV. 


Review  Radius,  Diameter,  Chord,  and  Tangent. 


OBJECT. 


To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,   Comparison,  Reason,  Judgment, 
and  Language. 


POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Secant,  Semicircle,  Segment,  and  Sector. 


MATTER. 


A   line  which  intersects  (cuts)   the  circumference  of  a  circle  in   two 
points  is  called  a  secant. 

2.  A  space  enclosed  hy  the  semi-circumference  and 
the  diameter  of  a  circle  is  called  a  semicircle. 

3.  A  space  enclosed  hy  an  arc  and  a  chord  of  a 
circle  is  called  a  segment  of  a  circle. 

4.  A    space   enclosed   by  two  radii  and  the  inter- 
cepted arc  is  called  a  sector  of  a  circle. 


METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Describing  circle  and  drawing  secant.) 

What  have  I  done  ? 
Child.  You  have  made  a  circle  and  drawn  a  line. 
T.  Where  is  the  line  in  regard  to  the  circle  ? 
Ch.  The  line  passes  through  the  circle.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  And  what  does  this  line  do  to  the  circumfer- 
ence ? 
Ch.  The  Ime  crosses  the  circumference. 
T.  Tell  me  that,  using  another  word  instead  of 

crosses. 
Ch.  The  line  cuts  the  circumference. 
T.    AVho  can  use  another  word  that  means  the 

same  as  cuts  f 
Ch.  (or  T.)  Intersects. 
T.  In  how  many  points  does  this  line  intersect 

the  circumference? 
Ch.  That   line   intersects   the    circumference   in 

two  points. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  65 

r.  You  may  describe  a  circle  and  draw  a  line  similar  to  this.     (Ch. 
does  so,  stating :  This  line  intersects  the  circumference  in  two  points.) 
T.  Who  can  draw  a  straight  line  that  will  in- 
tersect the  circumference  in  more  than  two 
points  ? 
Ch.  We  cannot  draw  a  straight  line  that  will 
intersect  tlie  circumference  in  more  than  two 
points.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now,  for  what  are  we  ready  ?  / 

Ch.  AVe  are  ready  for  the  definition. 
T.  Very  well,  make  the  definition. 
Ch.  A  line  that  intersects  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  in  two  points  is  called  (T.  give  term) 
a  secant.     (Sinmltaneous  recitation.     T.  write 
on  board.) 
T.  (Describing  a  circle  and  drawing  diameter.) 

What  have  I  done? 
Ch.  You  have  made  a  circle  and  drawn  a  di- 
ameter. 
T.  (Tracing  the  semi-circumference.)     IVhat  is 

this? 
Ch.  That  is  the  semi-circumference.     (Class  de- 
cision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  (Pointing  to  space.)     What  is  this  ? 
Ch.  That  is  a  space. 
T.  By  what  is  this  space  enclosed  ? 

Ch.  That  space  is  enclosed  by  the  semi-circumference  and  the  diam- 
eter of  the  circle.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  (Pointing  to  the  other  space.)     By  what  is  this  space  enclosed  ? 
Ch.  That  space  is  enclosed  by  the  semi-circumference  and  the  diameter 

of  the  circle. 
T.  You  may  make  other  spaces  enclosed  by  the  semi-circumference 

and  the  diameter  of  a  circle.     (Child  does  so,  describing  fully.) 
T.  Yv^ho  can  make  the  definition  that  we  need  now? 

Ch.  A  space  enclosed  by  the  semi-circumference 
and  the  diameter  of  a  circle  is  called  (T.  give 
term)  a  semicircle.     (Simultaneous  recitation. 
T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (Describing  circle  and  drawing  chord.)  What 

have  I  done  now  ? 
Ch.  You  have  made  a  circle  and  drawn  a  chord. 
T.  (Tracing  arc.)     What  is  this? 
Ch.  That  is  an  arc. 


66  LESSONS   ON  FORM. 

T.  (To  space.)     What  is  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  a  space. 

T.  By  what  is  this  space  enclosed  ? 

Ch.  That  space  is  enclosed  by  an  arc  and  a  chord.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  (To  the  other  space.)     By  what  is  this  space  enclosed? 
Ch.  That  space  is  enclosed  by  an  arc  and  a  chord.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
7'.  Show  me  other  spaces  enclosed  by  an  arc  and  a  chord.     (Ch.  does 

so,  stating  fully.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  ? 

Ch.  A  space  enclosed  by  an  arc  and  a  chord  of  a  circle  is  called  (T. 
give  term)  a  segment  of  a  circle.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T. 
write  on  board.) 
T.  (Describing  circle  and  drawing  two  radii.)   What  have  I  done  now  ? 
Ch.  You  have  made  a  circle  and  drawn  tw^o  radii. 

T.  (To  space  n.)     What  is  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  a  space. 

T.  By  what  is  this  space  enclosed  ? 

Ch.  That  space  is  enclosed  by  two  radii  and  the 

arc  amb.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Where  is  the  arc  amb  in  regard  to  the  radii 

oa  and  ob  ? 
Ch.  The  arc  amb  is  between  the  points  a  and  b, 
or  it  is  cut  off  by  the  radii  oa  and  ob.     (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Thinking  of  this,  what  may  we  say  of  this  arc  amb  ? 
Ch.  (or  T*.)     It  is  included  between  oa  and  ob,  or  it  is  the  intercepted 

arc.     (T.  explain  the  use  of  the  word.) 
T.  Now  describe  the  space  n  ? 

Ch.  It  is  a  space  enclosed  by  two  radii  and  the  intercepted  arc. 
T.  Show  me  other  spaces  enclosed  in  the  same  way.     (Ch.  does  so, 
stating :  This  space  is  enclosed  by  two  radii  and  the  intercepted 
arc.) 
2\  Now  we  are  ready  for  the  definition. 

Ch.  A  space  enclosed  by  two  radii  and  the  intercepted  arc  is  called 
(T.  give  term)  a  sector  of  a  circle.  (Simultaneous  recitation.  T. 
write  on  board.) 

Drill  by  having  children  find  and  describe  tangent,  segment,  semicircle, 
and  sector;  by  having  pupils  cut  forms  in  paper  and  describe,  and  by 
having  them  read  and  copy  definitions  on  the  board.  Then  erase  work, 
remove  objects,  close  books,  and  have  pupils  recall  what  they  have 
learned. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  ^7 

Note.  —  If  the  children  are  able  to  make  the  description  of  ellipse, 
and  to  construct  the  definition,  they  may  do  so  now.  If  not,  the  form 
for  the  present  may  be  presented  and  the  name  given.  The  oval  may  be 
taught  now.  It  is  very  simple,  and  both  description  and  definition  may 
be  given.  Before  beginning  work  upon  solids,  review  all  the  previous 
work  in  form.  Let  several  days  be  spent  in  the  review,  and  be  careful  to 
have  the  children  understand  as  well  as  remember. 

Work  in  Inventive  Drawing. 

1.  Make  a  design  in  segments  of  circles. 

2.  Make  a  design  in  tangents  and  secants. 

3.  Make  a  design,  using  sectors  of  circles. 

Work  in  Geometry. 

1.  Make  in  a  circle  an  angle,  two  of  whose  sides  are  radii  (central 
angle.) 

2.  Construct  an  angle,  two  of  whose  sides  are  chords  of  a  circle  (in- 
scribed angle). 

3.  Make  a  polygon,  all  of  whose  sides  are  chords  of  a  circle  (inscribed 
polygon). 

4.  Make  a  polygon,  all  of  whose  sides  are  tangents  of  a  circle  (circum- 
scribed polygon). 

5.  To  what  class  of  angles  does  an  angle  inscribed  in  a  semich-cle 
belong  ? 

6.  To  what  class  does  an  angle  inscribed  in  a  segment  less  than  a 
semicircle  belong  ? 

7.  An  angle  inscribed  in  a  segment  greater  than  a  semicbcle  ? 


68 


LESSONS   ON  FORM. 


LESSON  XV. 

Solids. 

With  very  young  pupils,  it  would  be  well  to  begin  "  Form  "  with  a 
study  of  "  Solids."  The  pupils  may  handle  the  objects,  giving  such  de- 
scriptions as  their  limited  language  will  allow,  and  using  the  terms  riven 
them  by  the  teacher.  In  this  way  they  will  learn  to  distinguish  the  dif- 
ferent solids,  and  to  give  partial  descriptions  that  will  be  of  use  later. 
The  solids,  as  studied,  should  be  moulded  by  the  children  in  clay  or 
putty.  The  work  of  moulding  may  be  carried  into  older  classes  with 
great  advantage,  and  will  be  of  great  service  in  drawing.  The  order  of 
work  may,  or  may  not,  be  the  same  for  primary  and  advanced  work 
The  order  here  given  takes  in  all  the  solids  having  curved  surfaces  first, 
and  afterward  the  solids  having  plane  faces  or  surfaces. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate   Perception,    Conception,    Comparison,    Reason,  Judgment, 
Memory,  and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  Idea  of,  and  teach,  Solid,  Sphere,  Hemisphere,  Diameter  of 
a  Sphere,  and  Cylinder. 


MATTER. 

1.  An  object  that  has  length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  is  a  solid. 

2.  A  solid  bounded  by  a  curved  surface,  every 
point  of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a  point 
called  the  center,  is  called  a  sphere. 

3.  A  hemisphere  is  half  a  sphere. 

4.  A  straight  line  passing  through  the  center  oj  a 
sphere,  and  terminated  by  the  surface  on  opposite 
sides,  is  called  the  diameter  of  a  sphere. 

5.  A  solid  bounded  by  tico  equal  parallel  plane 
circular  bases  and  one  curved  face  (between  the 
bases)  is  called  a  cylinder. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  a  solid.)     How  many  di- 
mensions has  this  solid  ? 
Child.  It  has  three  dimensions. 
T.  Name  them. 
Ch.  It  has  length,  breadth,  and  thickness. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


69 


Note.  —  The  teacher  will  remember  tliat  pupils  are  to  be  led  to  ap- 
preciate length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  before  beginning  the  regular 
work  in  form. 

T.  Find  other  objects  that  have  length,  breadth, 
and  thickness.     (Children  find  several  each, 
stating  :  This  object  has  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness.) 
T.  What  is  an  object  that  has  length,  breadth, 

and  thickness  called  ? 
Ch.  An   object   that  has   length,   breadth,  and 
thickness  is  called  (Ch.  or  T.  give  term)  a 
solid.      (Simultaneous   recitation.      T.  write 
on   board.      T.  here   lead  children  to  state 
that  a  line  is  terminated  by  points,  a  surface  is  bounded  by  lines, 
and  a  solid  is  bounded  by  faces ;  or,  as  in  the  case  of  sphere  and 
spheroid,  etc.,  by  a  surface.) 
T.  (Presenting  a  sphere.)     What  is  this? 
Ch.  It  is  a  solid. 

T.  By  what  is  it  bounded?     (Ch.  may  state  :   It  is  bounded  by  faces. 
If  so,  T.  will  correct.) 

Ch.  It  is  bounded  by  a  surface. 

T.  By  what  kind  of  surface,   thinking  of  its 

direction,  is  it  bounded  ? 
Ch.  It  is  bounded  by  a  curved  surface. 
T.  (Opening  the  sphere,  which  ought  to  be  com- 
posed   of    two  hemispheres    fastened    by  a 
hinge.)      Observe  what  I  do.      (Marking  a 
point  in  the  surface  near  edge  of  hemisphere.) 
What  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  touched  a  point  in  the  surface. 
T.  (Touching  the  central  point  in  the  plane  of  the  circle  of  hemis- 

p)here.)     What  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  touched  a  point  inside. 

T.  I  shall  draw  a  line  from  the  point  I  touched  in  the  surface  to  that 
point  inside.     (Does  so,  and  then  takes  another  point  in  the  sur- 
face.)    What  have  I  done  now  ? 
Ch.  You  have  touched  another  point  in  the  surface. 
T.  1  draw  another  line  from  that  point  to  the  point  inside.     How 

does  this  line  compare  in  length  with  the  first  ? 
Ch.  It  is  the  same  length.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  do  these  two  lines  show  ? 
Ch.  They  show  distances. 
T.  Distances  from  where  to  where  ? 


70  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

Ch.  They  show  distances  from  two  points  in  the  surface  to  a  point 

within  the  solid. 
T.  How  do  the  distances  of  those  two  points  in  the  surface  from  the 

point  within  the  solid  compare  in  length  ? 
Ch.  Those  two  points  in  the  surface  are  equally  distant  from  the  point 

within  the  solid.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Suppose  I  take  another  point  in  the  surface,  how  do  the  distances 

of  the  three  i^oiuts  in  the  surface,  from  the  points  within,  compare 

with  each  other? 
Ch  The  three  points  in  the  surface  are  equally  distant  from  the  point 

within  the  solid.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  many  points  in  the   surface   are  equally  distant  fi'om  that 

point  withiii  the  solid? 
Ch.  All  points  in  the  surface  (or  every  point)  are  equally  distant  from 

that  point  within  the  solid.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now,  if  I  take  another  point  within  the  solid,  how  do  the  distances 

of  all  points  in  the  surface  from  that  point  compare  ? 
Ch.  The  points  in  the  surface  are  unequally  distant  from  that  point. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  If  I  take  another,  what  will  be  true  in  this  respect  ? 
Ch.  The  points  in  the  surface  are  unequally  distant  from  that  point. 
T.  How  many  points  are  there  within  this  solid  from  which  all  points 

in  the  surface  are  equally  distant? 
Ch.  There  is  only  one.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  is  that  point  called  ? 
Ch.  It  is  called  the  center. 

T.  Thinking  of  what  you  have  learned,  describe  this  solid. 
Ch.  It  is  a  solid  bounded  by  a  cm-ved  surface,  every  point  of  which  is 

equally  distant  from  a  point  within,  called  the  center. 
T.  Find  other  solids  of  which  this  is  true.     (Children  find  several, 

ball,  marble,  etc.,  stating  each  time  what  he  has  found.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  that  is  based  on  this  description  ? 
Ch.  A  solid  bounded  by  a  curved  surface,  every  point  of  which  is 

equally  distant  from  a  point  within,  called  the  center,  is  called 

(Ch.  or  T.  give  term)   a  sphere.     (Simultaneous    recitation.     T. 


write  on  board.) 


T.  (Presenting  hemisphere.)     What  is  this? 

Ch.  That  is  one-half  a  sphere.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 

T.  AVho  knows  what  it  is  called?  (Ch.  or  T. 
give  term  hemisphere.) 

T.  What  is  a  hemisphere  ? 

Ch.  A  hemisphere  is  half  a  sphere.  (Simultane- 
ous recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


71 


Note.  —  The  teacher  may  lead  the  pupils  to  state  that  a  hemisphere 
is  bounded  by  a  curved  face  and  a  plane  face,  which  is  a  circle  whose 
circumference  is  the  circumference  of  the  whole  sphere. 

T.  (Presenting  sphere  dissected.)     Observe  and  state  what  I  do. 

Ch.  You  made  a  straight  line  within  the  sphere. 

T,  Where  is  this  line  in  regard  to  the  center  of  the  sphere  ? 

Ch.  It  passes  through  the  center  of  the  sphere. 

T.  Where  are  the  ends  of  the  line  ? 

Ch.  We  cannot  see  them. 

T.  Why  not? 

Ch.  They  are  in  the  sphere.     The  line  stops  in  the  sphere. 

T.  By  what  is  the  line  stopped  (terminated)  ? 

Ch.  The  line  is  terminated  by  the  surface  of  the  sphere. 

T.  In  how  many  places  is  the  line  terminated  ? 

Ch.  In  two  places. 

T.  Where  are  they  in  regard  to  each  other  ? 

Ch.  They  are  opposite  each  other. 

r.  Now  describe  this  line. 

Ch.  It  is  a  straight  line  passing  through  the  center  of  the  sphere,  and 
terminated  by  the  surface  at  opposite  points  (sides). 

T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  ? 

Ch.  A  straight  line  passing  through  the  center  of  a  sphere,  and  ter- 
minated by  the  surface  on  opposite  sides,  is  ca^ed  (T.  or  Ch.  give 
term)  the  diameter  of  a  sphere.  (Simultaneous  recitation.  T. 
write  on  board.) 

Note.  —  T.  may  here  teach  circumference  of  sphere,  which  can  be 
easily  shown  (by  showing  edge  of  a  hemisphere) . 

jT.  (Presenting  a  cylinder.)     What  is  this  ? 
Ch.  It  is  a  solid. 
T.  By  what  is  it  bounded  ? 
Ch.  It  is  bounded  by  two  plane  (flat)  faces  and 
one  curved  face.   (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.) 
(The  word  plane,  taught  in  connection  with 
lessons  upon  surface.) 
T.  How  do  the  plane  faces  compare  in  size  with 

each  other? 
Ch.  They  are  equal.     (Class  decision.     T.  con- 
firm.) 
T.  What  kind  of  faces  are  they,  thinking  of  their  distance  apart  at  all 

points  ? 
Ch.  They  are  parallel  faces.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  And  thinking  of  the  direction  of  the  circumference  of  each  face, 
what  kind  of  faces  are  they  ? 


72  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 

Ch.  They  are  circles  or  circular  faces. 

T.  Now,  thinking  of  all  you  have  learned  about  the  two  faces,  describe 
this  solid  carefully. 

Ch.  That  solid  is  bounded  by  two  equal,  parallel,  plane,  circular  faces, 
Ciid  one  curved  face.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.  T.  may 
here  lead  children  to  state  that  the  plane  faces  are  bases,  since  the 
solid  rests  on  either  of  them.) 

T.  Find  other  solids  like  this  in  every  respect.  (Children  find  several, 
stating  what  they  have  found.) 

T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  based  on  this  description  ? 

Ch.  A  solid  bounded  by  two  equal,  plane,  parallel,  circular  bases,  and 
one  curved  face,  is  called  (Ch.  or  T.  give  term)  a  cylinder.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.  T.  write  on  board.  T.  may  teach  right  and 
oblique  cylinders  here,  or  may  leave  this  for  later  work.) 

Drill  by  having  pupils  find  and  name  different  solids,  by  having  them 
give  descriptions,  make  drawings,  and  read  definitions  on  the  board. 
(Copy  in  note-book.)  Then  erase  work,  remove  objects,  and  have  pupils 
recall  what  they  have  learned. 

Note.  —  After  teaching  hemisphere,  spheroid  (prolate  and  oblate), 
ovoid,  and  ellipsoid  may  be  taught.  If,  however,  the  children  are  young, 
these  may  be  left  till  later. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


73 


LESSON  XIV. 

Review    carefully  Solid  Sphere,  Hemisphere,   Diameter  of  Sphere,  and 
Cylinder. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,   Conception,   Comparison,    Reason,  Judgment, 
Memory,  and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Cone,  Pyramid,  Cube,  and  Prism. 

MATTER. 

1.  A  solid  that  has  one  plane  circular  base   and  one  curved  face  that 
tapers  to  a  point  called  the  apex,  is  called  a  cone. 

2.  A  solid  that  has  one  polygonal  base  and  as  many  triangular 
side  faces  as  the  base  has  sides,  all  meeting  at  a  point 
called  the  apex,  is  called  a  pyramid. 

3.  A  solid  that  has  six  equal  square  faces  is  called  a  cube. 

4.  A  solid  that  has  two  equal,  plane,  parallel,  polygonal  bases, 
and  as  many  parallelogram  side  faces  as  each  base  has 
sides,  is  called  a  prism. 


METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  a  cone.)     What  is  this  ? 
Child.  It  is  a  solid. 
T.  You  may  describe  it. 

Ch.  It  has  one  plane  face  and  one  curved  face. 
T.  What  is  the  form  of  the  plane  face  ? 
Ch.  It  is  circular. 

T.  (Placing-  cone  on  table  on  base.)     What  else  may  you  call  the 
plane  circular  face  ? 


74  LESSONS   ON  FORM. 

Ch.  We  may  call  it  a  plane  circular  base. 

T.  You   may  now  compare  the   curved  face  of  this  solid  with  the 

curved  face  of  the  cylinder,  and  state  any  difference  you  observe. 
Ch.  The  curved  face  of  this  solid  comes  to  a  point,  and  the  curved 

face  of  the  cylinder  does  not.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  word  may  we  use  instead  of  cones  f 
Ch.  (or  T.)   Tapers. 
T.  What  is  this  point  called  ? 
Ch.  (or  T.)  It  is  called  the  apex. 
T.  Now  describe  this  curved  face. 
Ch.  This  curved  face  tapers  to  a  point  called  the  apex. 
T.  Now,  thinking  of  what  you  have  learned,  describe  this  solid. 
Ch.  This  solid  has  one  plane  circular  base,  and  one  curved  face  that 

tapers  to  a  point  called  the  apex. 
T.  Find  other  solids  of  which  this  is  true.     (Children  find  or  mould 

several,  giving  description  of  each.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  based  on  that  description  ? 
Ch.  A  solid  that  has  one  plane  circular  base,  and  one  curved  face  that 
tapers  to  a  point  called  the  apex,  is  called  (Ch.  or  T.  give  term)  a 
cone.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  (Presenting  a  pyramid.)     What  is  this  ? 
Ch.  It  is  a  solid  something  like  the  cone. 
T.  In  what  points  is  it  like  the  cone  ? 
Ch.  It  has  one  plane  base,  and  it  has  an  apex.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  How  does  it  differ  from  the  cone  ? 

Ch.  The  cone  has  one  curved  face,  and  this   solid  has 

several  plane  faces.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Examine  first  the  base,  and  tell  me  to  what  class  of 

figures  it  belongs. 
Ch.  It  is  a  pentagon. 
T.  Why  do  you  call  it  a  pentagon  ? 
Ch.  Because  it  has  five  sides. 
T.  Then  what  kind  of  base  is  it  ? 
Ch.  It  is  a  plane  pentagonal  base. 
T.  And  how  many  side  faces  are  there  ? 
Ch.  There  are  five  side  faces. 
T.  What  is  the  form  of  each  ? 
Ch.  Each  side  face  is  a  triangle. 
T.  How  does  the  number  of  triangular  side  faces  compare  with  the 

sides  of  the  base  ? 
Ch.  The  number  of  triangular  side  faces  is  the  same  as  the  number  of 
sides  of  the  bases. 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


75 


T.  Observe  the  base  of  this  solid  in  regard  to  the  number  of  sides. 

Ch.  The  base  of  this  solid  has  four  sides. 

T.  And  the  base  of  this  one  ? 

Ch.  This  one  has  three  sides. 

T.  Suppose  you  were  to  describe  these  bases  as  to  form, 
without  stating  the  number  of  sides  of  each,  what  one 
term  would  you  apply  to  all  ? 

Ch.  I  would  say  that  they  are  polygons. 

T.  What  kind  of  base  has  this  solid  ? 

Ch.  It  has  one  plane  polygonal  base. 

T.  And  this? 

Ch.  It  has  one  plane  polygonal  base,  and  so  has  the 
other.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  And  how  does  the  number  of  side  faces  of  each  com- 
pare with  the  number  of  sides  of  bases  V 

Ch.  The  side  faces  in  each  are  of  the  same  number  as  the 
sides  of  the  bases. 

T.  What  kind  of  side  faces  are  these  ? 

Ch.  They  are  triangular  side  faces. 

T.  Show  me  the  base  of  each  triangle. 

Ch.  The  base  of  each  triangular  side  face  forms  one  side  of  the  base 
of  the  solid.     (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.) 

T.  Show  me  the  apex  of  each  triangular  side  face. 

Ch.  They  all  have  the  same  apex  or  point  where  they  meet. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Thinking  of  what  you  have  learned,  describe  this  solid. 

Ch.  That  solid  has  one  plain  polygonal  base  and  as  many 
triangular  side  faces  as  the  base  has  sides,  all  meet- 
ing at  one  point  called  the  apex. 

T.  Find  other  solids  of  which  this  is  true.  (Children  find 
or  mould  several,  and  describe  each.) 

T.  For  what  are  we  now  ready  ? 

Ch.  We  are  ready  for  the  definition  and  the  name. 

T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  ? 

Ch.  A  solid  that  has  one  plane  polygonal  base,  and  as  many  triangular 
side  faces  as  the  base  has  sides,  all  meeting  at  one  point  called  the 
apex,  is  called  (Ch.  or  T.  give  term)  a  pyramid.  (Simultaneous 
recitation.     T.  write  on  board.) 

Note.  —  T.  may  teach  here  the  difference  between  right  and  oblique 
cones  and  pyramids. 

T.  (Presenting  a  cube.)     What  is  this  ? 
Ch.  It  is  a  solid. 


76 


LESSONS  ON  FORM. 


T.  Describe  it,  tliinking  of  the  way  in  which  it  is  bounded. 
Ch.  It  has  six  plane  faces. 

T.  Compare  those  faces  with  each  other  in  regard  to 

size,  and  state  what  you  observe. 
Ch.  The  faces  are  equal.    (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  is  the  form  of  these  faces  ? 
Ch.  They  are  square  faces. 

T.  Describe  this  solid,  thinking  of  what  you  have  learned. 
Ch.  That  solid  has  six  equal  square  faces. 
T.  What  is  it  called  ? 

Ch.  A  solid  that  has  six  equal  square  faces  is  called  (Ch.  or  T.  give 
term)    a   cube.      (Simultaneous   recitation.      T.   write   on  board. 
Have  Ch.  mould  other  cubes.) 
T.  (Presenting  prism.)    Look  at  this  solid,  and  state  what  you  observe 

in  regard  to  its  bases. 
Ch.  It  has  two  equal,  plane,  parallel  polygonal  bases.    (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 


Note.  —  If  the  previous  work  has  been  carefully  done,  the  children 

will  have   no  difficulty  in   making 

this    statement    in    reaard   to   the 


T.   You    may  speak    of    the    side 

faces. 
Ch.  It  has  several  side  faces. 
T.  How  does  the  number  of  side 
faces  compare  with  number  of 
sides  of  each  base  ? 
Ch.  The  side  faces  are  as  many  as 

the  sides  of  each  base. 
T.  WTiat  is  the  form  of  the  side 
faces  ? 
Ch.  They  are  parallelograms.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.   Describe  this  solid  in  regard  to  what  you  have 

learned. 
Ch.  That  solid  has  two  equal  plane  parallel  polygonal 
bases,  and  as  many  paraUelogTam  side  faces  as 
each  base  has  sides. 
T.  Find  other  solids  of  which  this  is  true.     (Children  find  several, 

mould  others,  and  describe  until  familiar  with  the  words.) 
T.  Who  can  make  the  definition  ? 


LESSONS  ON  FORM.  77 

Ch.  A  solid  that  has  two  equal  plane  polygonal  bases,  and  as  many 
parallelogram  side  faces  as  each  base  has  sides,  is  called  (Ch.  or 
T.  give  term)  a  prism. 

Drill  by  having  child  find  and  describe  different  solids ;  by  having 
them  mould ;  and  by  having  them  read  definitions  on  the  board.  Then 
erase  work,  remove  objects,  and  have  children  recall  what  they  have 
learned. 

Note.  —  T.  may  here  lead  pupils  to  see  that  a  cube  is  one  kind  of  a 
prism,  and  that  a  prism  whose  bases  are  parallelograms  is  called  a  par- 
allelopipedon. 

With  small  children,  I  would  advise  that  the  teacher  do  not  trouble 
them  with  the  definitions  of  solids  for  some  time ;  but,  with  more  ad- 
vanced pupils,  a  great  deal  of  good  will  result  from  describing  and  con- 
structing definitions  based  upon  the  descriptions. 


LESSOlSrS  Ol^  PLACE. 

LESSON    I. 

Patterning. 
OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,   Conception,   Co7nparison,  Judgment,  Memory, 

and  Language, 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of  Position,  by  imitating  what  the  Teacher  does. 

MATERIALS. 

Table  inclined  towards  the  class,  to  enable  each  child  to  see  the  pat- 
terns placed  on  it.  Papers  cut  in  different  forms,  —  squares,  tri- 
angles, circles,  etc.  At  first  these  papers  should  be  large,  and  such 
as  will  form  simple  designs.  In  the  first  lesson,  not  more  than 
three  papers  should  be  used  in  any  one  design,  and  not  more  than 
three  different  designs  should  be  made  by  the  teacher.  Each  child 
must  have  as  many  papers  as  the  teacher  uses.  If  he  has  more, 
there  will  be  greater  room  for  the  exercise  of  comparison  and 
judgment. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  papers.)     What  have  I? 

Child.  You  have  some  cards. 

T.  How  many  cards  have  I  in  my  hand  ? 

Ch.  You  have  three. 

T.  Observe  carefully  what  I  do  with  these  cards.     (Arranges  them  in 

a  simple  design  on  the  table.)     What  have  I  done  ? 
Ch.  You  have  laid  the  cards  on  the  table. 
T.  Where  have  I  placed  them  in  regard  to  each  other? 
Ch.  You  have  placed  them  near  each  other  (or  close  to  each  other). 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  You  may  each  find  among  your  cards  three  cards  just  like  these 

three  I  have  used.     (Children  find  them,  stating  :   These   cards 

are  just  like  yours.) 


80  LESSONS  ON  PLACE. 

T.  Now  you  may  place  them  on  your  desks,  and  make  something  just 
like  this  that  I  have  made.  (If  the  children  have  no  desks,  the 
T.  may  have  three  or  four  go  to  the  table  and  make  patterns  there, 
the  other  children  watching  and  describing  what  has  been  done. 
It  is  much  better,  however,  for  all  the  children  to  work  at  the  same 
time,  as  children,  as  well  as  gTown  people,  appreciate  what  they  do 
with  their  own  hands,  much  more  than  what  they  see  done.) 

T.  What  have  you  done,  Mary? 

Ch.  I  have  placed  three  cards  together,  and  made  something  just  like 
what  you  made. 

T.  How  many  think  that  Mary  has  made  something  like  this  which  I 
have  made  ?    (Children  examine  closely  and  decide.    T.  confirms.) 

T.  What  have  you  done,  John  ? 

Ch.  I  have  placed  three  cards  on  the  desk,  and  made  something  just 
like  that  which  you  made. 

2\  James,  you  may  tell  what  John  has  done. 

Ch.  John  has  made  something  like  that  which  you  made. 

T.  Jane  and  Susan  may  tell  what  they  have  made. 

Children.  We  have  made  something  like  that  which  you  have  made. 

T.  (After  examining  each  desk  to  see  that  no  mistakes  have  been 
made.)     You  may  all  tell  me  what  you  have  done. 

Class.  We  have  made  something  just  like  that  which  you  made. 

T.  (Presenting  other  papers.)     What  have  I  now  ? 

Ch.  You  have  three  other  cards. 

T.  Compare  them  with  the  first  cards  I  used,  and  tell  me  what  you 
observe. 

Ch.  They  are  not  the  same  shape  as  those  you  first  used.  (Class  de- 
cision.    T.  confirm.) 

T.  AVhat  other  difference  do  you  observe  ? 

Ch.  They  are  smaller  than  those  you  first  used. 

T.  Observe  what  I  do.     (Makes  a  new  design.)     What  have  I  done  ? 

Ch.  You  have  placed  those  three  cards  together,  and  made  something 
else  (another  figure). 

T.  Compare  the  figure  I  have  just  made  with  the  one  I  first  made, 
and  tell  me  what  you  observe. 

Ch.  The  figure  you  have  just  made  is  smaller  than  the  one  yon  first 
made.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Mention  any  other  difference  you  observe. 

Ch.  It  is  not  the  same  shape  as  the  first.  (Class  decision.  T.  con- 
firm.) 

T.  Each  child  may  find  three  cards  just  like  those  I  used  in  making 
the  second  figure,  and  make  a  figure  like  this.  (Children  do  so, 
each  statmg  what  he  has  done,  as  in  the  previous  work.     Care 


LESSONS  ON  PLACE.  81 

should  be  taken  here  that  the  children  speak  distinctly,  and 
describe  accurately,  using  full  statements  every  time  they  speak. 
If  the  work  is  properly  done,  there  is  little  danger  that  the  children 
will  tire  of  talking.     Children  love  to  tell  what  they  know.) 

T.  (Presenting  other  papers,  no  two  of  which  are  alike.)  What  have 
I  now  ? 

Ch.  You  have  three  more  cards. 

T.  Compare  them  with  those  I  have  already  used,  and  tell  me  what 
you  observe. 

Ch.  They  are  smaller  than  any  you  have  used.  (If  they  should  be 
larger,  or  of  the  same  size,  of  course  the  children  will  state  the 
diiference  or  resemblance,  as  the  case  may  be.) 

T.  What  other  difference  do  you  observe? 

Ch.  They  are  not  shaped  like  any  of  the  cards  you  have  used.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Compare  these  cards  with  each  other  in  regard  to  size,  and  tell  me 
what  is  true  of  them. 

Ch.  They  are  not  of  the  same  size ;  or,  they  are  of  different  sizes. 

T.  Compare  them  with  each  other  in  regard  to  shape,  and  state  what 
you  observe. 

Ch.  They  are  of  different  shapes.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Now  observe  what  I  do.    (Makes  new  design.)    What  have  I  done  ? 

Ch.  You  have  placed  them  together  and  made  another  figure. 

T.  You  may  each  find  three  cards  like  these  I  used  last,  and  make  a 
figure  like  this  which  I  have  made.  (Children  have,  perhaps,  some 
difficulty  in  selecting  three  cards  of  different  forms,  but  at  length 
get  them,  and  make  the  design,  several  stating  accurately  and  fully 
what  they  have  done.) 

T.  (Disarranging  the  designs  and  mixing  the  cards  used.)  What 
have  I  done  now  ? 

Ch.  You  have  put  all  the  cards  together.     (Children  do  so.) 

T.  Now  you  may  each  select  the  three  cards  you  first  used,  and  make 
the  first  figure  I  made.  (Children  do  so  perhaps  with  some  diffi- 
culty. Perhaps  some  can  not  remember  the  design,  in  which  case 
they  may  look  at  the  work  of  those  who  have  been  successful  in 
recalling  the  work  done.  After  the  first,  the  T.  may  give  direc- 
tions to  have  the  second  and  third  reproduced.) 

Note.  —  The  work  in  patterning  from  sight  and  memory  may  last  a 
week,  and  to  keep  up  the  interest,  other  objects  than  paper  may  be  used. 
Blocks  and  boxes  make  a  pleasant  variety,  and  may  be  used.  After  the 
first  day  or  two  the  T.  may  appoint  some  bright  pupil  to  make  the  designs 
at  the  table,  and  have  the  other  children  imitate  his  work. 


32  LESSONS  ON  PLACE. 

LESSON    II. 

Position  Words. 
OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception^  Conception^  Comparison,  Judgment,  Memory^ 
and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach  words  in,  On,  Under,  Over,  Above,  Be- 
low, Across,  Round,  Behind,  Against,  Beside,  By,  etc. 

MATTER. 

The  ball  is  in  the  cup. 
The  ball  is  on  the  table. 
The  ball  is  under  the  cup. 
The  cup  is  over  the  ball. 
The  block  is  above  the  cup. 
The  cup  is  below  the  block. 
The  string  is  across  the  book. 
The  string-  is  round  the  ball. 
The  child  is  behind  the  door. 
The  chair  is  against  the  door. 
The  book  is  beside  the  box. 
The  marble  is  by  the  ball. 

METHOD. 

The  T.  may  open  the  lesson  with  a  short  conversation  about  the  dif- 
ferent articles  on  the  table,  getting  from  the  children  the  names  of 
each,  after  which  the  work  may  begin. 

Teacher.  Watch  me  now  and  see  what  I  do.  (Placing  the  ball  in  the 
cup.)     What  did  I  do  ? 

Child.  You  put  the  ball  in  the  cup.  (T.  write  on  board  word  m,  call 
attention  to  it,  and  drill.) 

T.  ^Yhere  is  the  ball,  Jane  ? 

Ch.  The  ball  is  in  the  cup. 

T.  (Placing  the  ball  on  the  table.)     Where  is  the  ball  now? 

Ch.  The  ball  is  on  the  table.     (T.  write  on  board  word  on,  and  drill.) 

T.  (Turning  the  cup  over  the  ball.)     Wliere  is  the  ball  now  ? 

Ch.  The  ball  is  under  the  cup.  (T.  write  on  board  word  under,  and 
drill.) 

T.  Where  is  the  ball,  thinking  of  the  table  ? 

Ch.  The  ball  is  on  the  table. 


LESSONS  ON  PLACE.  83 

T.  Where  is  the  cup,  thinking  of  the  table  ? 

Ch.  The  cup  is  on  tlie  table. 

T.  Where  is  the  cup,  thinking  of  the  ball  ? 

Ch.  The  cup  is  over  the  ball.     (T.  write  on  board  word  over,  and  drill.) 

T.  (Presenting  a  block.)     What  is  this  ? 

Ch.  It  is  a  block. 

r.  (Holding  the  block.)     Where  is  the  block  ? 

Ch.  It  is  in  your  hand. 

T.  (Placing  it  on  the  table.)     Where  is  it  now  ? 

Ch.  It  is  on  the  table. 

T.  (Placing  it  under  a  book.)     Where  is  it  now  ? 

Ch.  It  is  under  the  book. 

T.  Where  is  the  book,  thinking  of  the  block  ? 

Ch.  The  book  is  over  the  block. 

T.  (Holding  the  block  above  the  cup.)  T\Tiere  is  the  block  now, 
thinking  of  the  cup  V 

Ch.  The  block  is  above  the  cup.  (T.  write  on  board  word  above,  and 
drill.  It  is  possible  that  a  child  may  say  the  block  is  over  the  cup, 
in  which  case  the  T.  will  lead  him  to  see  that  the  word  over  im- 
plies covering,  while  above  does  not.) 

T.  Where  is  the  cup  in  regard  to  the  block  ? 

Ch.  The  cup  is  below  the  block.  (T.  write  on  board  word  below,  and 
drill.  If  child  should  say  the  cup  is  under  the  block,  T.  leads 
him  to  see  that  under  implies  covered.) 

T.  You  may  place  something  over  something,  and  state  what  you 
have  done. 

Ch.  (Placing  open  box  over  the  block.)  I  have  put  the  box  over  the 
block.  (Drill  on  these  words  in  various  ways,  until  children  fully 
appreciate  their  use.) 

T.  (Presenting  string.)     What  have  I  ? 

Ch.  You  have  a  string. 

T.  Where  is  the  string  ? 

Ch.  It  is  in  your  hand. 

T.  (Placing  it  on  table.)     Where  is  it  now  ? 

Ch.  It  is  on  the  table. 

T.  Where  is  it  now  ? 

Ch.  It  is  above  the  table. 

T.  ^VTiere  is  it  now  ? 

Ch.  It  is  below  the  ball. 

T.  (Lajdng  it  across  the  book.)     Where  is  it  now  ? 

Ch.  It  is  on  the  book. 

T.  How  is  it  on  the  book,  thinking  of  the  direction  ? 

Ch.  It  is  across  the  book.     (T.  write  on  board  word  across,  and  diill.) 


84  LESSONS   ON  PLACE. 

T.  You  may  place  the  string  across  something,  and  state  what  yon 

have  done. 
Ch.  (Placing  string  across  the  box.)  I  have  put  the  string  across  the  box. 
T.  Where  is  the  string? 
Ch.  It  is  across  the  box. 
T.  Maiy,  what  did  John  do  ? 
Ch.  He  put  the  string  across  the  book. 
T.  Watch  closely  and  see  what  I  do.     (Placing  string  roimd  the  ball.) 

Where  is  the  string  now  ? 
Ch.  It  is  on  the  ball. 
T.  Where  on  the  ball  is  it? 

Ch.  It  is  round  the  ball.     (T.  write  on  board  word  round,  and  drill.) 
T.  You  may  do  as  I  did,  just  now,  with  the  string. 
Ch.  (Placing  string  round  a  bottle.)     I  have  put  the  string  round  the 

bottle. 
T.  John,  what  did  ^Mary  do  ? 
Ch.  ^lary  put  the  string  round  the  bottle. 
T.  Now,  watch  closely  and  see  what  I  do.     (Placing  a  little  girl 

behind  the  door.)     Where  is  Mary  ? 
Ch.  She  is  behind  the  door.    (T.  write  on  board  word  behind ;  drill  as 

with  the  words  across,  over,  under,  etc.) 
T.  Watch  and  see  what  I  do  this  time.     (Placing  a  chair  so  that  it 

touches  the  door.)     "Where  is  the  chair  ? 
Ch.  The  chair  is  against  the  door.     (T.  write  word  against,  and  drill. 

Possibly  the  children  may  say  the  chair  is  near  the  door,  or  close 

to  the  door,  in  which  case  the  teacher  will  lead  them  to  see  that 

she  cannot  open  the  door  without  moving  the  chair,  as  the  chair  is 

against  the  door.) 
T.  Now   observe   what   I   do.     (Placing  the  book  beside  the  box.) 

AVhere  is  the  book,  thinking  of  the  box  ? 
Ch.  The  book  is  close  to  the  box. 
T.  Tell  me  that  in  another  way. 
Ch.  The  book  is  near  the  box. 
7\  That  is  true,  but  tell  me  in  another  way. 
Ch.  The  book  is  beside  the  box.     (T.  write  on  board  word  beside,  and 

drill  as  before.) 
T.  Where  is  the  marble,  thinking  of  the  ball  ? 
Ch.  The  marble  is  beside  the  ball,  or  by  the  ball.     (T.  write  on  boaird 

word  by.) 

Drill  by  having  children  replace  objects  in  the  positions  indicated  by 
the  position  words  on  the  board,  and  by  having  them  recall  objects  in 
their  homes  that  are  in  certain  positions. 


LESSONS   ON   PLACE.  85 

Note.  —  The  work  upon  position  words  will  occupy  at  least  a  week, 
as  it  will  not  be  possible  for  little  children  to  learn  to  use  more  than  two 
or  three  new  words  in  each  lesson.  Encourage  the  children  to  talk  as 
much  as  possible,  but  do  not  let  them  wander  from  the  point  of  the 
lesson.  With  a  little  care  the  T.  can  help  them  form  a  habit  of  concen- 
tration that  will  be  of  great  value  in  later  work,  and  indeed  throughout 
their  lives. 


86  LESSONS  ON  PLACE. 

LESSON   III. 

Right  and  Left. 
OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Judgment,  Memory^ 
and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach  terras,  Right  and  Left. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  John,  you  may  bring  me  a  book.     (Ch.  does  so.) 

T.  AVith  what  did  John  bring  me  the  book  ? 

Child.  He  brought  you  the  book  with  his  hand. 

T.  John,  show  the  hand  with  which  you  brought  it. 

Ch.  (Presenting  hand.)     I  brought  the  book  with  this  hand. 

T.  Mary  may  toss  this  ball.     (Ch.  does  so.) 

T.  Show  the  hand  with  which  you  tossed  the  ball. 

Ch.  I  tossed  the  ball  with  this  hand. 

T.  James,  you  may  take   this   knife   and  stick,  and  whittle.     (Ch. 

does  so.) 
T.  Show  the  hand  which  holds  the  knife. 
Ch.  This  hand  holds  the  knife. 

T.  Susan  may  shake  hands  with  Mary.     (Children  do  so.) 
T.  Each  child  may  show  the  hand  she  used  just  now. 
Ch.  I  used  this  hand. 
Ch.  I  used  this  hand. 
T.  Bring  me  a  book,  John,  and  do  not  use  the  hand  you  used  before. 

(Ch.  does  so.)     You  may  show  the  hand  with  which  you  brought 

the  book. 
Ch.  I  brought  the  book  with  this  hand. 
T.  How  many  hands  have  you  ? 

Ch.  I  have  two  hands.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Raise  your  hand,  James.     (Ch.  does  so.) 
T.  That  is  not  the  hand  I  wished  you  to  raise.     Why  did  you  not 

raise  the  one  I  wanted  ? 
Ch.  I  did  not  know  which  one  you  wanted  me  to  raise.  ^ 

T.  What  can  I  do  to  make  you  know  which  hand  I  wish  you  to  raise  ? 
Ch.  You  can  say  which  hand  you  mean. 
T.  What  shall  I  say  that  will  tell  which  hand  I  mean  ? 
Ch.  You  can  say  the  name  of  the  hand. 


LESSONS  ON  PLACE.  87 

T.  Very  well.    Who  knows  the  name  of  the  hand  which  James  raised  ? 

(Children  may  not  know.) 
T.  It  is  called  the  right  liand.     (Simultaneous  i-ecitation.     T.  write  on 

board  word  right.) 
T.  Each  child  hold  up  the  right  hand.     (Children  do  so,  stating: 

This  is  my  right  hand.) 
T.  You  may  mention  things  that  you  do  with  the  right  hand. 
Ch.  I  write  with  my  right  hand. 
Ch.  I  hold  the  knife  with  my  right  hand. 
Ch.  I  shake  hands  with  my  right  hand. 
T.  Hold  up  the  other  hand.     (Children  do  so.) 
T.  Who  knows  the  name  of  this  hand  ? 
Ch.  (or  T.)  This  is  called  the  left  hand. 
T.  All  show  their  left  hands.     (Children  do  so,  stating :  This  is  my 

left  hand.) 
T.  Show  me  your  right  eye. 
Ch.  (Touching.)     This  is  my  right  eye. 
T.  Show  me  your  right  ear. 
Ch.  (Touching.)      This  is  my  right  ear.     (This  work  of  right  and 

left  parts  of  the  body  should  be  carried  on  until  the  children  can 

name  them  rapidly.) 
T.  You  may  point  to  the  right. 

Look  to  the  right. 

Throw  a  ball  to  the  right. 

Walk  to  the  right. 

Name  a  house  to  the  right  of  this. 

Name  a  tree  to  the  right  of  this.     (T.  have  similar  work  for  lej\ 

until  the  children  can  use  the  terms  intelligently  and  readily.) 
T.  Go  to  the  table,  and  find  parts  of  top.     (Children  find  sides  and 

ends.) 
T.  Find  the  right  end  of  the  table. 
Ch.  (Touching.)     This  is  the  right  end  of  the  table. 
T.  Find  left  end. 
Ch.  This  is  the  left  end. 

T.  (Touching  front.)     What  shall  we  call  this  part  of  the  table  ? 
Ch.  This  is  the  front  of  the  table. 
T.  (To  back.)     What  is  this  called  ? 
Ch.  That  is  the  back  of  the  table. 
T.  (To  comer.)     What  is  this? 
Ch.  That  is  a  corner. 

T.  How  many  corners  has  the  top  of  the  table? 
Ch.  It  has  four  corners. 
T.  (To  right  front  corner.)     What  corner  is  this  ? 


88  LESSONS  ON   PLACE. 


Ch.  It  is  the  right  front  corner. 


T.  (To  left  front  corner.)     What  corner  is  this  ? 

Ch.  This  is  the  left  front  corner. 

T.  Find  and  name  the  other  corners. 

Ch.  This  is  the  right  back  corner.     This  is  the  left  back  comer. 

T.  (Placing  various  objects  upon  different  parts  of  the  table.)  Where 
is  the  book  ? 

Ch.  It  is  on  the  right  end  of  the  table. 

Ch.  The  ball  is  on  the  right  back  corner  of  the  table. 

Ch.  The  cup  is  on  the  left  front  corner  of  the  table.  (This  work  may 
be  continued  until  the  children  can  describe  positions  i-eadily.) 

T.  Now  we  shall  look  at  the  top  of  the  table  again.  (Removes  ob- 
jects.) Compare  the  front  of  the  table  with  the  right  end,  and  tell 
me  what  is  true  of  their  length. 

Ch.  The  front  of  the  table  is  longer  than  the  right  end.  (Class  de- 
cision.    T.  confirm.     Ch.  had  better  measure  before  deciding.) 

T.  Compare  the  front  with  the  back,  thinking  of  their  length,  and  tell 
me  what  is  true. 

Ch.  The  front  and  back  of  the  table  are  of  the  same  length.  (Class 
decision.     Measuring.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Compare  the  right  end  with  the  left  end,  thinking  of  their  length, 
and  tell  me  what  is  true. 

Ch.  The  right  end  and  left  end  are  of  the  same  length.  (Class  de- 
cision.    Measuring.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  (Presenting  slate.)  I  wish  you  to  make  a  pictm-e  of  the  table  on 
this  slate.     Xow,  where  shall  we  place  it  ? 

Ch.  We  might  place  it  on  the  table. 

T.  In  what  position  shall  we  put  it  ? 

Ch.  We  must  put  it  so  that  the  ends  of  the  slate  point  to  the  ends  of 
the  table.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Xow  find  the  parts  of  the  slate  as  you  found  the  parts  of  the  top 
of  the  table. 

Ch.  This  is  the  front  of  the  slate. 

Ch.  This  is  the  back  of  the  slate. 

Ch.  This  is  the  right  end. 

Ch.  This  is  the  left  end. 

Ch.  This  is  the  right  front  corner. 

Ch.  This  is  the  left  front  corner. 

Ch.  This  is  the  right  back  corner. 

Ch.  This  is  the  left  back  corner. 

T.  Now  we  shall  make  a  picture  of  the  back  of  the  table  first.  "What 
shall  we  use  to  make  this  picture  ? 

Ch.  We  shall  use  a  line. 


LESSONS  ON   PLACE.  89 

T.  What  kind  of  a  line  must  it  be  V  . 

Ch.  It  must  be  a  straight  line. 

T.  Where  on  the  slate  shall  we  draw  it  ? 

Ch.  We  shall  draw  it  along  the  back  of  the  slate. 

T.  You  may  do  so,  and  state  what  you  have  done. 

Ch.  (Drawing  the  line.)  I  have  made  a  picture  of  the  back  of  the 
table. 

T.  What  part  shall  we  draw  next  ? 

Ch.  We  may  draw  the  picture  of  the  right  end  of  the  table. 

T.  You  may  do  so,  and  state  what  you  have  done. 

Ch.  (Drawing  the  right  end  line.)  I  have  made  a  picture  of  the  right 
end  of  the  table. 

T.  What  shall  we  draw  next  ? 

Ch.  We  shall  draw  the  left  end  next. 

T.  You  may  do  so. 

Ch.  (Drawing  left  end  line.)  I  have  made  a  picture  of  the  left  end  of 
the  table. 

T.  What  have  we  left  to  draw  V 

Ch.  We  have  the  front  left  to  draw. 

T.  You  may  draw  that  part. 

Ch.  (Drawing  front  line.)  T  have  made  a  picture  of  the  front  of  the 
table. 

T.  What  have  we  now  on  the  slate  ? 

Ch.  We  have  a  picture  of  tlie  top  of  the  table  on  the  slate.. 

2\  (Pointmg  to  right  end  line.)  Find  the  part  of  the  table  of  which 
this  is  a  picture.  (Ch.  finds  the  part,  stating  what  he  has  found. 
T.  may  drill  in  this  way  until  the  children  fully  miderstand.  The 
T.  will  then  place  objects  on  diiferent  parts  of  the  table,  have 
children  describe  their  positions,  and  have  other  children  repre- 
sent them  in  corresponding  positions  in  the  picture ;  have  others 
describe  positions  of  objects  on  the  table  and  in  the  picture.) 

Note.  —  The  work  upon  right  and  left  will  take  a  week. 


90  LESSONS  ON  PLACE. 


LESSON  IV. 

Points  of  the  Compass. 

With  young  children  this  part  of  the  study  of  Place  belongs  to  the 
second  3^ear's  work,  as  it  is  more  difficult  than  the  previous  part. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Judgment,  Memory, 
and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach.  East,  West,  North,  South. 

MATTER. 

1.  Where  the  sun  rises  is  East. 

2.  Where  the  sun  sets  is  West. 

3.  Standing  loith  the  right  hand  pointing  towards  the  East,  anil  the  left 
hand  towards  the  West,  the  North  is  directly  before  us,  and  the  South 
directly  behind  «.<?. 

XoTE.  —  Before  beginning  to  develop  ideas  of  cardinal  points,  the  T. 
should  lead  the  children  to  perceive  that  Right  and  Left  are  relative 
terms,  and  to  appreciate  the  necessity  for  cardinal  points. 

METHOD 

Teacher  reviews  Right  and  Left  hands,  parts  of  the  body,  Right  and 
Left  hand  sides  of  the  room,  of  the  street,  etc. 

Teacher.  Mary,  you  may  go  to  the  table  and  find  the  right  and  left 
sides. 

Child.  This  is  the  right  side ;  this  is  the  left  side. 

7',  (Changing  child's  position.)     Now  find  the  right  and  left  sides. 

Ch.  This  (towards  right  hand)  is  the  right  side,  and  this  (towards  the 
left  hand)  is  the  left  side. 

T.  What  did  Mar^'  do? 

Ch.  She  moved  from  one  place  to  another  (or  she  changed  her  posi- 
tion). 

7\  What  have  you  observed  in  regard  to  the  right  side  which  she 
found  first,  and  the  one  she  has  just  now  fomid  ? 

Ch.  The  right  side  •  she  first  found  is  not  the  same  as  the  right  side 
she  has  just  now  found.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Why  is  it  not  the  same  ? 


LESSONS  ON  PLACE.  91 

Ch.  She  changed  places,  and  that  made  it  different. 

T.  John  may  face  to  the  window,  and  point  to  the  right  side  of  the 

room. 
Ch.  (Does  so,  pointing.)     This  is  the  right  side  of  the  room. 
T.  Now  turn  round  and  point  to  the  right  side.     (Ch.  does  so,  stat^. 

ing.     After  several  trials,  T.  leads  the  children  to  tlie  conclusion 

that  right  and  left  change  as  we  change  our  positions.     Do  not 

have  small  children  state  that  Right  and  Left  are  relative  terms,  as 

they  cannot  yet  appreciate  the  word  relative.) 
T.  (Arranging  several  children  in  different  positions  on  the  floor.)     I 

wish  you  to  bring  me  those  articles  from  the  table  at  my  right. 

Each   of  you   may  %valk  to  the   right   and  bring  them   to  me. 

(Children  each  walk  to  the  right,  and  do  not  reach  the  table.) 
T.  Why  did  you  not  reach  it? 
Ch.  Right  was  different  with  each  of  us,  and  we  went  in  different 

directions.     (T.  try  the  same  wdth  left,  with  the  same  results.) 
T.  Suppose  I  were  to  send  you  for  a  book  in  the  next  room,  and  were 

to  tell  you  that  it  lies  in  the  right  hand  corner,  how  many  would 

know  where  to  go  to  look  for  it? 
Ch.  We  should  not  know,  as  we  would  not  know*  in  what  position  we 

must  stand  to  have  that  corner  on  oiu*.  right.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  What  could  I  say  that  w^ould  tell  you,  at  once,  in  what  part  of  the 

room  to  look  ? 
Ch.  You  could  tell  us  a  name  for  that  part    of  the  room.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.     Leading  children  to  perceive  that  certain 

absolute  terms  known  to  all  must  be  used  before  they  could  have 

a  correct  idea  of  the  positions  of  objects  they  could  not  see.) 
T.  This  morning  I  rose  very  early,  and  abnost  the  first  thing  I  did 

was  to  light  my  lamp.     AVhy  do  you  suppose  I  did  that  ? 
Ch.  Because  it  was  dark.     You  could  not  see  without  it. 
T.  Yes,  that  was  the  reason.     Well,  I  read  a  w^hile  by  the  lamp,  and 

then  found  that  I  could  see  without  it.     Wfhy  do  you  think  I  could 

see  without  it? 
Ch.  It  was  daylight. 
T.  Yes,  it  w^as ;  and  w^hen  I  looked  at  my  window,  I  saw  a  light  much 

brighter  than  any  lamp.     What  do  you  think  it  was  ? 
Ch.  The  sun  w^as  rising,  and  shone  in  your  windo\y. 
T.  Yes,  that  was  just  what  it  was.     How  many  have  seen  the  sun 

rise?     (Some  have.) 
T.  Point  towards  the  place  where  the  sun  rises.     (Children  point.) 
T.  Walk  tow^ards  the  place  where  the  sun  rises.     (Children  walk.) 
T.  Who  knows  what  the  place  where  the  sun  rises  is  called  ? 


92  LESSONS  OX  PLACE. 

Ch.  (or  T.)  Where  the  sun  rises  is  called  the  East.     (Simultaneous 

recitation.     T.  write  on  board  statement.) 
T.  Point  towards  the  east. 

Walk  towards  the  east. 

Point  to  the  east  side  of  the  room. 

Point  to  the  east  side  of  the  street. 

Face  towards  the  east. 
T.  Where  is  the  sun  now  ?     (Children  state.) 

T.  ^\Tiere  else  have  you  seen  the  sun  ?     (Children  point  and  state.) 
T.  What  do  we  call  thai  part  of  the  twenty-foui-  hours  during  which 

we  see  the  sun  ? 
Ch.  We  call  it  the  daytime. 
T.  ^^^ly  can  we  not  see  the  sun  at  night  ? 
Ch.  Because  the  sun  sets  (or  goes  down)  at  night. 
T.  Point  towards  the  place  where  the  sun  sets.     (Children  do  so.) 
T.  Walk  towards  the  place  where  the  sun  sets.     (Children  do  so.) 
T.  Who  knows  what  that  place  is  called  ? 
Ch.  (or  T.)  AMiere  the  sun  sets  is  called  the  West.     (Simultaneous 

recitation.     T.  write  on  board  full  statement.) 
T.  Point  towards  the  west. 

AValk  towards  the  west. 

Find  west  side  of  room. 

Find  west  side  of  hall. 

Find  west  side  of  playground. 

Point  towards  east  and  west  at  the  same  time. 
Ch.  My  right  hand  is  pointing  towai'ds  the  east,  and  my  left  hand  is 

pointing  towards  the  west. 
T.  All  stand  in  that  position. 
T.  Standing  with  the  right  hand  pointing  towards  the  east,  and  the 

left  hand  towards  the  west,  what  is  directly  before  us  ? 
Ch.  (or  T.)  The  North  is  directly  before  us. 
T.  What  is  behind  us  ? 
Ch.  (or  T.)  The  South  is  behind  us. 
T.  Who  can  name  the  points  we  have  learned  ? 
Ch.  We  have  learned  East,  West,  North,  and  South. 
T.  Describe  the  positions  of  those  points. 

Ch.  Where  the  sun  rises  is  east.     T\Tiere  the  sun  sets  is  west.     Stand- 
ing with  the  right  hand  pointing  towards  the  east,  and  the  left 

hand  pointing  towards  the  west,  the  north  is  directly  before  us, 

and  the   south  is  directly  behind  us.     (Simultaneous  recitation. 

T.  write  on  board  last  statement.) 
Drill  on  cardinal  points  applying  to  inside  of  school-room,  then  to  the 
school-yard,  then  to  the  block  (if  in  the  city),  to  fields  (if  in  the  country). 


LESSONS  ON  PLACE.  U3 

Have  children  tell  what  street  is  north  of  the  block,  where  school-house 
is  situated,  what  street  is  east,  south,  and  west.  This  gives  the  idea  of 
boundaries.  Apply  terms  until  children  use  them  readily  and  intelli- 
gently, then  teach  the  semi-cardinal  points.  North-east,  South-east,  North- 
west, South-west.  This  can  be  done  by  having  children  point  one  hand 
east,  the  other  north.  North-east  lies  between  the  two,  but  do  not  teach 
that  it  lies  just  half  way  between,  as  children  will  get  a  wrong  idea. 
Similar  work  for  other  semi-cardinal  points.  The  work  that  Right  and 
Lejl  are  relative  terms,  the  necessity  for  absolute  terms,  the  cardinal  and 
«emi-cardmal  points,  will  take  at  least  four  weeks. 


94  LESSONS  ON  PLACE. 

LESSON  V. 

Plan  for  Map  Drawing,  Moulding,  and  Use  of  Maps. 

1.  Review  previous  work  thoroughly. 

2.  Lay  shite  on  table,  and  draw  on  it  a  map  of  the  top  of  table,  using 
terms  North,  East,  South,  and  West,  and  semi-cardinal  points  as  well, 
when  necessary. 

3.  Hold  slate  in  a  vertical  position,  and  apply  terms  as  before. 

4.  Transfer  picture  of  top  of  the  table  to  the  board  on  north  side  of 
the  room,  and  apply  terms  as  before. 

5.  Have  child  state:  The  line  representing  north  side  of  the  table  is 

placed  at  the  top  (North). 

The  line  representing  east  end  of  the  table  is  placed  at  the  right  hand 
(East). 

The  line  representing  west  side  of  the  table  is  placed  at  the  left  hand 
(West). 

The  line  representing  the  south  side  of  the  table  is  placed  at  the  bot- 
tom (South), 

6.  Children  may  use  the  term  map,  and  may  state :  The  top  of  this  map  is 

North. 
The  right-hand  side  is  East. 
The  left-hand  side  is  West. 
The  bottom  is  South. 

7.  May  now  lead  children  to  see  that  a  picture  of  an  object  may  be 

longer  or  smaller  than  the  object,  and  yet  be  a  true  picture  so  long 
as  it  has  the  same  form  or  shape.  This  prepares  the  way  for  teach- 
ing children  to  draw  to  a  scale. 

8.  If  children  have  not  had  size  lessons,  the  teacher  will  develop  idea  of, 

and  teach,  yard,  foot,  inch.  This  may  be  done  by  dividing  the  yard 
into  three  equal  parts,  or  three  feet.  Then  divide  the  foot  into 
twelve  equal  parts,  and  take  one  of  these  equal  parts  for  an  inch. 

9.  Children  may  now  measure  the  floor  of  school-room,  and  draw  a  map 
of  it  on  the  board  on  north  side  of  the  room,  representing  the  north 
side  of  the  room  by  the  top  line,  east  side  by  right-hand  line,  west 
side  by  left-hand  line,  and  south  side  by  the  bottom  line.  Drill  on 
these. 

10.  As  it  will  be  impossible  to  draw  the  floor  the  full  size  on  the  board, 
the  children  must  be  taught  that  they  may  draw  one  inch  to  repre- 
sent one  foot,  or  to  represent  three  feet,  as  the  case  may  be. 

IL  Any  break  in  the  straight  line  of  the  side  of  the  room  may  be  shown 
by  a  similar  break  in  straight  line  of  the  map,  representing  that  side. 


LESSONS  ON  PLACE.  95 

12.  The  position  of  desks  or  other  objects  must  be  indicated  in  the  map. 

13.  The  work  of  moulding  in  sand  or  clay  may  be  begun  now,  and  con- 
ducted in  much  the  same  way  as  map-drawing. 

14.  The  sand  should  be  placed  on  a  smooth  board  with  a  rim  not  more 
than  one  inch  high.     Let  the  sand  be  moist,  but  not  too  wet. 

15.  The  scale  to  which  the  moulding  is  made  may  or  may  not  be  the 
same  as  that  to  which  the  map  is  drawn.  At  first,  it  will  be  well  to 
have  it  the  same.  If  it  were  possible,  it  would  be  well  for  each  child 
to  have  a  small  moulding-board,  as  it  is  rather  trying  to  the  little 
ones  to  watch  the  work  and  have  no  hand  in  it. 

16.  After  a  map  of  the  school-room  floor  is  drawn,  a  map  of  the  yard 
may  be  made,  and  a  moulding  as  well. 

17.  After  a  map  of  the  yard,  a  map  and  moulding  of  a  block  may  be 
made  in  exactly  the  same  way,  allowing  one  inch  or  half  an  inch 
for  so  many  feet,  or  so  many  yards,  as  the  case  may  be. 

18.  Children  bound  the  block  by  streets  on  north,  east,  south,  and  west. 

(Blocks  are  also  bounded  by  other  blocks.) 

19.  They  may  now  mould  and  draw  the  block  north  of  the  first,  the 
block  east,  and  the  block  west. 

20.  They  may  now  mould  and  draw  the  outline  of  the  whole  city  (using 
city  map  for  reference). 

21.  After  the  work  upon  the  town  or  city,  the  study  of  the  county  map 
may  begin. 

22.  The  county  is  composed  of  townships.  Take  first  the  township  in 
which  children  live,  and  go  from  this  to  those  nearest,  and  then  to 
the  more  remote.     Draw  and  mould  as  the  map  is  studied. 

23.  Physical  features,  waters,  elevations,  etc.,  may  be  first  taught  incident- 

ally in  the  study  of  the  city,  and  continued  in  the  study  of  the  town- 
ships and  county. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  TO   LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


Dicotyledonous  Seed. 
I.    h  Hilum. 
e  Seed-coat, 
c  Cotyledon. 
II.   E  Embryo. 
7'  Plumule. 
R  Radicle. 

III.    MONOCOTYLEDONOUS    SeED. 

h  Hilum. 
e  Embryo. 


IV.   Bean  showing  plumule  (P) 
between  cotyledons  (ec). 
v.   Bean  further  advanced. 
VI.   Indian  corn  with  roots  growing. 
P  Plumule. 
c   Cotyledon. 
R  Radicle. 


LESSOI^S    ON    PLAINTS 


INTRODUCTION. 

In  this  work  I  have  thought  it  unnecessary  to  indicate  at  the  beginning 
of  each  lesson  the  points  to  be  developed,  and  the  matter  to  be  taught. 
I  have  also  considered  it  unnecessary  to  continue  the  method  of  question 
and  answer  beyond  three  topics,  as  it  will  be  nmch  better  for  the  teacher 
to  arrange  his  own  matter,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  originate  his  own 
plans  and  methods  of  instruction.  By  referring  to  the  summary  upon  each 
topic,  he  will  perceive  the  order  in  which  the  matter  should  be  taught. 

Limited  space  has  prevented  my  doing  more  than  suggest  the  work  to 
be  done.  The  teacher  will  need  for  reference,  Gray's  "  Common  School 
Botany,"  "How  Plants  Grow,"  " How  Plants  Behave."  Miss  Eliza  You- 
man's  First  and  Second  Books  of  Botany  are  also  very  valuable  for  refer- 
ence. None  of  these  books  should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  children, 
and  no  lessons  in  Botany  should  be  learned  by  heart. 

Technical  terms  should  not  be  taught  until  the  pupils  need  them,  and 
carefully  appreciate  their  significance. 

The  object  of  the  work  is  to  bring  the  child  in  contact  with  nature ; 
to  teach  him  to  observe,  think,  reason,  and  to  express  himself  naturally. 
If  memorized  lessons  are  recited,  the  work  becomes  formal,  and  the  effect 
is  destroyed. 

In  regard  to  specimens,  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  that  one  can  hardly 
have  too  many.  The  most  familiar  plants  should  be  used  first.  They 
can  be  obtained  in  any  field  or  garden. 

If  there  is  sufficient  ground  around  the  school-house,  the  pupils  should 
be  encouraged  to  plant  seeds,  and  to  cultivate  many  of  the  plants  to  be 
studied  in  class. 

The  work  in  writing  and  drawing  should  be  carried  on  in  connection 
with  this  subject,  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  study  of  insects,  A  scrap- 
book,  for  items  upon  Botany,  should  be  kept,  and  out-door  observation 
should  be  recorded. 

Before  beginning  the  work  upon  Seeds,  it  may  be  well  to  have  a  few 
conversational  lessons  upon  plants  in  general.  The  pupils  may  be  led  to 
distinguish  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees.  They  may  also  be  taught  the  general 
uses  of  plants,  and  the  sources  from  which  they  derive  their  food.  The 
trees  of  the  garden  may  be  distinguished  from  the  trees  of  the  forests ; 
evergreen  trees  from  deciduous  trees,  etc. 


98  LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 

LESSON   I. 
The  Seed. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  seeds  of  different  kinds,  —  bean,  Indian  corn,  pea, 

apple,  pumpkin,  wheat,  rice,  oats,  sunflower,  etc.)     What  are  these  ? 
Child.  They  are  beans,  peas,  rice. 

T.  That  is  true,  but  you  may  tell  me  what  one  name  will  apply  to  all. 
Ch.  They  are  seeds. 
T.  You  may  name  as  many  of  these  seeds  as  you  know.     (Children 

probably  know  all  by  name.) 
T.  You  may  each  take  the  bean  seed  in  your  hand.     You  may  describe 

it  in  regard  to  size. 
Ch.  (Measuring.)     It  is  nearly  one  inch  long. 
Ch.  It  is  about  half  an  inch  wide. 
Ch.  It  is  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick. 
T.  Describe  the  shape. 

Ch.  It  has  two  sides  curved  somewhat,  and  it  has  curved  edges. 
T.  Describe  it  still  further. 
Ch.  It  is  smooth. 
Ch.  It  is  shiny. 
Ch.  It  LS  hard. 
Ch.  It  is  white. 
T.  Compare  the  color  of  the  seed  with  the  color  of  this  paper,  and  tell 

me  what  you  observe. 
Ch.  The  seed  is  somewhat  yellowish,  and  the  X)aper  is  pure  white. 
T.  Who  can  describe  the  color  accurately  ? 
Ch.  It  is  creamy  white.     (If  possible,  the  T.  should  have  the  beans  all 

of  the  same  color  at  first ;    later,  the  pupils  may  examine  those  of 

different  colors  and  sizes,  and  may  be  led  to  state  that  beans  are  of 

different  sizes  and  colors.) 
T.  You  may  mention  anything  else  you  observe  about  this  seed. 
Ch.  I  have  found  a  little  place  on  the  inner  edge  something  like  an 

eye. 
T.  Describe  it  more  carefully. 

Ch.  It  is  darker  in  color  than  the  other  part  of  the  seed. 
Ch.  It  is  like  a  scar. 

T.  It  is  like  a  scar.     Who  can  think  how  it  was  made  ? 
Ch.  It  is  the  place  where  the  bean  was  fastened  to  the  pod.     (If  pupils 

do   not  perceive   this,  the  T.  will   show   them   pods  with   beans 

attached.) 
T.  This  place  is  called  the  hilum  or  scar.     (Simultaneous  recitation, 

T.  write  on  board  word  hilum.') 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  99 

T.  (Presenting  beans  that  have  been  soaked  in  ^vater  for  some  time.) 

Compare  this  bean  with  those  you  have  been  looking  at,  and  state 

any  differences  you  observe. 
Ch.  This  seed  is  softer  than  the  first  one  you  gave  us. 
Ch.  Tlie  outside  part  of  this  bean  is  ruffled,  and  the  first  one  is  quite 

smooth. 
T.  You  may  remove  the  outside  part.     Do  so  very  carefully,  so  as  not 

to  break  it.     (Children  use  knives  or  needles  in  removing  coats.) 
T.  What  have  you  removed  ? 
Ch.  1  have  removed  an  outside  covering,  or  case. 
T.  Think  of  another  name  by  which  you  may  call  it. 
Ch.  It  is  like  a  skin. 
Ch.  It  is  like  a  coat. 
T.  Yes,  it  is  called  the  seed-coat.     Xow  you  may  describe  it  very 

carefully. 
Ch.  The  seed-coat  is  soft.  , 

Ch.  It  is  smooth. 
Ch.  It  is  thhi.  i 

Ch.  It  is  something  like  leather. 
Ch.  It  is  rather  tough. 
Ch.  It  is  white. 

T.  Hold  it  up  to  the  light,  and  state  what  you  observe. 
Ch.  I  can  see  light  through  it,  but  I  cannot  see  objects.     (Class  decis- 
ion.    T.  confirm,  and  give  the  term  translucent.^ 
T.  Of  what  use  is  the  seed-coat  ? 
Ch.  It  protects  the  other  part  of  the  seed. 
T.  From  what  does  it  protect  the  rest  of  the  seed  ? 
Ch.  It  protects  it  from  the  air,  and  from  moisture.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Xow  examme  the  part  that  was  left  after  removing  the  seed-coat, 

and  state  what  you  observe. 
Ch.  It  is  smooth,  and  quite  hard. 
Ch.  It  is  of  a  yellowish  white. 
Ch.  It  cuts  like  cheese. 
T.  What  else  do  you  observe? 
Ch.  It  has  two  parts. 
T.  Describe  those  parts. 

Ch.  Each  one  has  a  flat  side  and  a  curved  side. 
Ch.  The  two  flat  sides  fit  closely  together. 
T.  The  part  of  the  seed  which  is  left  after  removing  the  seed-coat,  is 

called  the  body,  or  kernel  of  the  seed.     (Simultaneous  recitation. 

T.  write  on  board  word  kernel.') 
T.  You  may  describe  the  parts  of  the  kernel  further.    ^ 


100  LESSONS   ON  PLANTS. 

Ch.  The  parts  of  the  kernel  look  something  like  two  leaves. 

T.  Each  of  these  is  called  a  cotyledon,  or  seed-leaf.  (Simultaneous 
recitation.     T.  write  on  board  word  cotyledon.) 

T.  How  many  cotyledons  has  the  bean  seed  ? 

Ch.  The  bean  seed  has  two  cotyledons. 

T.  Because  it  has  two  cotyledons  it  is  said  to  be  dicotyledonous.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.     T.  write  on  board  word  dicotyledonous.) 

T.  Now  examine  these  other  seeds  (presenting  one  of  each  kind),  and 
find  as  many  dicotyledonous  seeds  as  you  can.  (Children  examine, 
and,  after  some  time,  state  that  the  pea,  apple,  pumpkin,  and  sun- 
flower seeds  are  dicotyledonous,  but  that  the  Indian  corn,  w^heat, 
oats,  etc.,  are  not  so.  (T.  may  here  explain  that  they  have  only 
one  cotyledon,  or  seed-leaf,  and  hence  are  called  monocotyledonous, 
monos,  Gr.,  meaning  07ie.) 

T.  (Presenting  beans  that  have  germinated.)  Examine  the  kernels 
of  these  seeds  very  carefully,  and  describe  what  you  find. 

Ch.  I  have  found  something  betw^een  the  cotyledons. 

T.  Describe  the  position  more  accurately. 

Ch.  It  is  at  one  end  of  the  kernel  just  where  the  edges  of  the  cotyle- 
dons meet. 

Ch.  It  is  made  uf)  of  two  parts. 

Ch.  One  part  points  towards  the  edges  of  the  cotyledons,  and  the 
other  part  points  up  between  the  flat  sides  of  the  cotyledons. 

T.  Who  can  think  what  this  may  be  ? 

Ch.  It  is  the  part  from  w'hich  the  bean  plant  grows.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 

T.  That  is  true,  and  it  is  called  the  embryo  or  the  beginning  of  the 
plant.    (Simultaneous  recitation.    T.  w^ite  on  board  word  embryo.) 

T.  You  may  describe  the  embryo  very  carefully. 

Ch.  The  embryo  is  made  up  of  two  parts. 

Ch.  The  part  which  points  to  the  outside  of  the  cotyledons  is  very 
small.     It  is  slender,  round,  and  -white. 

Ch.  The  other  part  seems  to  have  two  little  things  at  the  end.  (If 
the  pupils  have  lenses,  they  will  have  no  difiiculty  in  seeing  the 
two  little  leaves.) 

T.  What  do  you  think  those  tw^o  little  things  may  be  ? 

Ch.  They  may  be  little  leaves.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  have  told  me  that  the  embryo  will  become  a  plant,  and  that 
it  has  two  parts.     How  many  parts  has  a  plant? 

Ch.  It  has  two  parts. 

T.  You  may  describe  those  parts,  thinking  of  their  position  when 
growing. 

Ch.  One  part  grows  in  the  ground,  and  the  other  grows  up  from  the 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  101 

ground.    (It  would  be  well  to  have  a  whole  plant,  to  show  the 
pupils  each  part.) 
T.  Now,  to  which  of  these  parts  does  the  part  of  the  embryb  which 

you  first  described  correspond  ? 
Ch.  It  corresponds  to  the  part  which  grows  in  the  ground. 
T.  Yes,  it  is  the  part  from  which  the  root  grows,  and  it  is  called  the 
radicle.       (Simultaneous     recitation.       T.   write  on  board   word 
radicle.) 
T.  NoM',  what  is  this  other  part  of  the  embryo  ? 
Ch.  It  is  the  part  which  grows  above  the  ground,  or  the  stem. 
T.  Yes,  it  is  the  part  from  which  the  stem  grows,  and  it  is  called  the 
plumule.       (Simultaneous   recitation.       T.   write  on  board   word 
plumule.      Children  will  be  very  apt  to  state  that  the  whole  plant 
grows  above  the  ground,  and  the  teacher  will  have  to  show  them 
several  times  that  the  root  is  a  part  of  the  plant.) 
(The  teacher  will  now  present  other  seeds  that  have  germinated, 
and  let  pupils  find  the   embryo  in  each.     Let  them  state   that  the 
plumule  of  a  dicotyledonous  seed  has  two  little  leaves,  while  that  of 
a  monocotyledonous  seed  has  but  one  leaf.     Let  them  state  that  when 
the  leaves  first  appear  above  ground  there  are  two  leaves  from  a  di- 
cotyledonous seed,  and  one  from  a  monocotyledonous  seed. 

They  may  compare  the  different  seeds  as  to  size,  form,  surface, 
color,  number  of  parts,  seed-coats,  embryos,  etc. 

The  comparative  work  upon  the  seed-coats  will  be  very  interesting 
as  there  are  hardly  two  having  the  same  texture.) 
T.  AVho   can   think  of  what  use  the   cotyledons   are  to  the   bean? 
(Perhaps  the  pupils  cannot  answer  this   question.      If   not,  the 
teacher  will  lead  them  to  see  that  they  provide  nourishment  for 
the  little  plant  until  it  grows  strong  enough  to  take  its  food  from 
the  soil  and  the  air.     Also  lead  them  to   examine  the  corn,  and 
find  that  though  it  has  but  one  cotyledon,  it  has  sufficient  nourish- 
ment for  the  little  plant  in  «the  albumen  in  which  the  embryo  is 
embedded.     Teach  that  because  of  the  presence  of  albumen  the 
seeds   of  the   Indian  corn,  and  indeed  of  all  monocotyledonous 
seeds,  are  said  to  be  albuminous^  while  the   dicotyledonous  seeds 
are  said  to  be  exalhuminous.) 
T.  Now,  you  may  tell  me  what  these  seeds  need  in  order  to  begin  to 

grow  (germinate). 
Ch.  They  need  warmth. 
Ch.  They  need  moisture. 

Ch.  They  need  air.  (T.  may  here  show  children  that  the  seed  will 
germinate  in  water  as  well  as  in  the  earth,  and  in  the  light  as  well 
as  in  darkness.) 


102  LESSONS   ON  PLANTS. 

T.  Of  what  use  are  seeds? 

Ch.  They  produce  new  plants. 

Ch.  'They  are  used  for  food. 

Ch.  They  are  used  for  medicines. 

Ch.  They  are  used  for  distilling. 

Ch.  They  are  used  for  making  oil. 

Ch.  They  are  used  for  fertilizers. 

Ch.  They  are  used  for  fuel  in  some  States.  (Probably  the  children 
will  not  think  of  all  these  uses.  If  not,  the  teacher  will  lead 
them  to  make  the  statements.  The  last  use  refers  to  the  use  of 
corn  in  some  AVestern  States.) 

(The  work  on  the  seed  ought  to  occupy  two  or  three,  or  perhaps  more, 
days.  At  the  beginning  of  the  work,  the  teacher  will  have  each  child 
])lant  a  seed  in  boxes  in  the  windows,  or,  if  there  is  ground  outside,  near 
the  school-house.  If  pupils  are  old  enough,  have  each  child  keep  a 
written  record  of  the  growth  and  appearance  of  his  plant. 

In  this  book  he  will  first  enter  the  name  of  his  seed,  the  date  of 
planting,  the  date  of  its  appearing  above  gTound,  whether  the  seed  came 
above  ground  or  remained  at  the  root,  when  the  first  leaves  grew  on  the 
stem,  etc. 

If  the  pupils  are  very  small,  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  keep  a 
record  of  facts  concerning  the  seed  which  the  little  ones  shall  discover. 
In  this  case,  to  save  work  and  trouble,  it  will  be  well  to  have  all  the 
pupils  plant  the  same  seed. 

As  work  out  of  school  hours,  the  teacher  may  assign  certain  seeds  to 
be  examined  and  carefully  described.  These  descriptions  must  be  in 
writing,  as  well  as  those  which  are  made  in  class.  After  examining  a 
seed,  a  careful  drawing  must  be  made,  showing  the  seed  as  ^  whole,  and 
the  different  parts.  Every  lesson  of  observation  should  be  followed  by  a 
writing,  reading,  and  drawing  lesson  upon  the  same  subject.) 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


103 


SUMMARY  OF  WORK  UPON  SEEDS. 


The  Seed. 


\.  Parts    . 


'  1.  Hilum  or  scar. 

2.  Seed-coats. 

3.  Kernel  or  nucleus 


!T^    V         (  Plumule. 
Embryo  |  Radicle. 
Albumen. 


II.  Kinds    . 


III. 


Conditions  of 
Germination 


IV.  Uses  . 


1.  Dicotyledons,  exalbuminous.  —  Beany  pea,  etc. 

2.  Monocotyledons,    albuminous.  —  Coruy    wheat, 

rice,  etc. 

Warmth. 
Moisture. 
Dissolved  food. 
Air  (vital  force). 

'  1.  To  produce  new  plants. 

2.  For  medicines. 

3.  For  food. 
,  4.  For  making  starch. 
}  .5.  For  making  oil. 

G.  For  fertilizers. 

7.  For  distilling. 

8.  For  fuel. 


104 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 
II. 


TAP  ROOTS. 

I.  Tap  or  Primary  Root,  with 

branches. 
II.   Conical. 

III.  Fusiform. 

IV.  Napiform. 


FIBROUS  ROOTS. 

V.  Fibrous. 

VI.  Moniliform. 

VII.  Tubercular. 

VIII.  Fasciculated. 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  105 

LESSON   II. 

The  Root. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  tap-roots  to  the  class,  one  to  each  pupil.)     What 

are  these? 
Child.  They  are  roots  of  plants. 
7'.  From  what  did  they  grow? 
Ch.  They  grew  from  seeds. 
T.  From  what  part  of  the  seed  did  they  grow  ? 
Ch.  They  grew  from  the  embryo. 
T.  How  many  parts  lias  the  embryo  ? 
Ch.  It  has  two  parts,  the  plumule  and  the  radicle. 
T.  From  which  part  of  the  embryo  does  the  root  grow  ? 
Ch.  It  grows  from  the  radicle,  or  root  end. 
T.  Examine  the  specimens  I  have  given  you,  and  find  the  part  which 

grew  from  the  plumule. 
Ch.  This  part,  the    stem,  grew  from  the  plumule.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Trace  the  stem  downward  as  far  as  it  goes.     Now  what  do  you 

obsei-ve  in  regard  to  the  growth  of  the  root  from  that  place  ? 
Ch.  It  seems  that  the  root  is  a  part  of  the  stem. 
Ch.  It  is  like  the  stem  growing  downward. 
T.  Yes,  it  does  seem  like  the   prolongation  of  the  stem  downward. 

Later,  you  will  observe  differences  between  the  root  and  stem.    At 

present  you  may  describe  this  root. 
Ch.  (Measuring.)     It  is  about  four  inches  long. 
Ch.  (Measuring.)     It  is  about  one  inch  thick  at  the  largest  part. 
Ch.  It  is  largest  near  the  stem. 
Ch.  It  tapers  to  a  point  towards  the  other  end. 
T.  You  may  describe  the  shape. 
Ch.  It  is  long,  and  round,  and  tapering. 
T.  Describe  the  surface. 

Ch.  The  surface  is  smooth.     (T.  show  roo^/<ft/r.«f.) 
Ch.  The  root  which  I  have  has  a  ridgy  surface. 
T.  Mention  anything  else  that  you  observe. 
Ch.  The  color  of  this  root  is  pale  yellow,  or  yellowish  white.     (There 

will  doubtless  be  manv  different  colored  roots,  and  the  T.  will 

have  children  obsei-ve  this,  and  state  that  they  are  of  different 

colors.) 
T.  Mention  anjrthing  else  that  you  observe. 

Ch.  There  are  ever  so  many  little  things  growing  out  from  the  root. 
T.  From  what  part  of  the  large  root  do  they  grow  ? 


106  LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 

Ch.  They  grow  from  the  sides  of  the  large  root. 

T.  Where  on  the  sides  of  the  large  root  are  they  in  regard  to  each 

other  ? 
Ch.  They  are  at  different  places  along  the  sides. 
T.  Who  can  think  of  a  name  for  them? 
Ch.  They  are  little  branches.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Yes,  you  may  call  them  branches.     What  may  you  call  the  largp 
*       root? 
Ch.  We  may  call  it  the  chief  root. 

T.  Who  can  think  of  another  word  that  means  the  same  as  chief? 
Ch.  Main  root. 
T.  Yes,  you  may  call  it  the  main  or  tap-root.     (Simultaneous  recitar 

tion.     T.  write  on  board  word  tap-root.) 
T.  You  may  describe  a  tap-root. 
Ch.  A  tap-root  is  a  main  root,  with  branches  growing  from  different 

places  along  the  sides. 
T.  Find  other  tap-roots.     (Children  find  several  and  describe.) 
T.  JSTow  find  a  root  that  is  not  a  tap-root. 
Ch.  This  is  not  a  tap-root. 
T.  AVhy  do  you  say  it  is  not  a  tap-root  ? 

Ch.  Because  it  has  no  main  root.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Of  what  is  that  root  composed  ? 

Ch.  It  is  composed  of  a  great  many  (a  cluster)  little  branches. 
T.  What  do  those  branches  look  like? 

Ch.  They  look  like  little  threads.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  They  do  look  like  little  threads,  and  for  that  reason  they  are 

called  fibres.     From  what  do  these  fibres  grow  ? 
Ch.  They  grow  from  the  end  of  the  stem.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.) 
T.  From  what  does  the  tap-root  grow  ? 
Ch.  It  grows  from  the  radicle,  and  it  seems  to  be  the  stem  growing 

downward ;  but  these  roots  branch  out  from  the  stem. 
T.  You  may  find  other  roots  like  these.     (Children  find  several,  de- 
scribing each.) 
T.  Since  this  root  is  composed  of  many  (or  a  cluster)  small  fibres 

growing  from  the  end  of  the  stem,  what  do  you  think  we  may  call 

this  kind  of  root  ? 
Ch.  We  may  call  it  a  fibrous  root.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  It  is  called  a  fibrous  root.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on 

board  words  fibrous  root.)  Now  find  both  tap-roots  and  fibrous  roots. 

(Children  find  several,  and  describe.) 
T.  What  is  a  fibrous  root  ? 
Ch.  A  fibrous  root  is  one  that  is  composed  of  many  (or  of  a  cluster  of) 

small  fibres  growing  from  the  end  of  the  stem. 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  107 

Note.  —  The  teacher  may  now  teach  axial  and  inaxial,  as  applying 
to  tap  and  fibrous  roots ;  may  also  explain  use  of  terms  primary  and 
multiple-primary,  as  applied  to  roots ;  and  may  teach  that  tap-roots  are 
called  true-roots,  while  Jihrous  roots  are  called  adventitious  roots ;  also  that 
roots  growing  from  any  part  of  the  stem  are  called  adventitious  roots. 
Monocotyledonous  seeds  produce  adventitious  roots.  Dicotyledonous 
seeds  produce  either  tap-roots  or  adventitious  roots. 

T.  How  many  classes  of  roots  have  we  described? 

Ch.  We  have  described  two  classes,  tap-roots  and  fibrous  roots. 

T.  (Presenting  roots.^     Each  child  may  select  a  tap-root.     (Children 

select,  and  perhaps  spend  some  time  in  determining  such  roots  as 

the  bean.     After  which,  fibrous   roots   may  be  for  the  present 
•    removed.) 
T.  John,  you  may  describe  the  root  which  you  have,  thinking  of  its 

shape. 
Cli.  This  root  is  round.     It  is  large  near  the  stem,  and  tapers  to  a 

point  towards  the  other  end. 
T.  What  object  have  you  seen  that  this  root  resembles  in  shape  ? 
Ch.  It  is  shaped  something  like  a  cone.     (Class  decision.    T.  confirm. 

If  the  pupils  have  not  had  lessons  in  "  Form,"  they  will  probably 

not  know  the  term  cone,  in  which  case  the  T.  will  show  them  a 

cone,  and  let  them  perceive  the  resemblance  between  it  and  the  root.) 
T.  All  who  have  roots   that  are  cone-shaped  may  hold   them  up. 

(Children  do  so,  and  describe.) 
T.  Mary  may  go  to  the  table  and  find  other  roots  of  this  shape.     (Ch. 

does  so,  describing  each.) 
T.  This  is  called  a  conical  root.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write 

on  board  words  conical  root.) 
T.  John,  you  may  describe  the  root  which  you  have,  thinking  of  its 

shape. 
Ch.  This  root  tapers  to  a  point,  as  the  conical  root  does. 
T.  Where  is  the  conical  root  largest  ? 
Ch.  It  is  largest  near  the  stem. 
T.  Where  is  the  root  which  you  have  the  largest  ? 
Ch.  It  is  largest  near  the  middle.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  describe  it  as  to  the  way  in  which  it  tapers. 
Ch.  It  tapers  towards  both  ends. 
T.  Find  other  roots  of  this  shape.     (Children  find  several,  describing 

each.) 
2\  This  is  called  a  fusiform  (or  spindle-shaped)  root.     (Simultaneous 

recitation.     T.  write  on  board  fusiform  root.     May  show  here  a 

picture  of  a  spindle  filled,  and  describe.) 


108  LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 

T.  Jane,  you  may  describe  the  root  which  you  have,  thinking  of  its  shape. 

Ch.  This  root  has  a  face  that  is  nearly  circular,  and  the  stem  grows 
upward  from  the  center. 

T.  AVho  can  describe  it  further  ? 

Ch.  The  upper  part  is  large  and  nearly  round,  while  the  lower  part  is 
slender  and  tapers  to  a  point. 

T.  Find  other  roots  of  this  shape.  (Children  find  several,  and  de- 
scribe each.) 

T.  This  is  called  a  napiform  (or  turnip-shaped)  root.  (Simultaneous 
recitation.     T.  write  on  board  words  napiform  7'oot.) 

T.  (Presenting  a  root.)     What  kind  of  root  is  this  ? 

Ch.  That  is  a  conical  root.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  AVhat  kind  of  root  is  this? 

Ch.  It  is  a  fusiform  root.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  kind  of  root  is  this? 

Ch.  It  is  a  napiform  root.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  To  which  class  of  roots  do  these  which  j^ou  have  described  belong? 

Ch.  They  belong  to  the  class  of  tap-roots. 

T.  How  many  kinds  of  tap-roots  have  you  found? 

Ch.  We  have  found  three  kinds  of  tap-roots,  —  conical,  fusiform,  and 
napiform  roots. 

Note.  —  T.  will  here  lead  the  pupils  to  perceive  that  these  roots  store 
up  nourishment  which  serves  for  food  for  animals  ;  that  this  storing  up 
takes  places  during  the  first  year  of  growth,  and  that,  if  allowed  to  grow 
a  second  year,  this  nourishment  will  be  used  by  the  plant.  The  T.  will 
then  remove  tap-roots,  and  presenting  fibrous  roots,  lead  pupils  to  de- 
scribe the  different  kinds.  First,  the  fibrous  root,  which  is  composed  of 
long  thread-like  roots  growing  from  the  end  of  the  stem.  Second,  the 
fasciculated  root  which  is  composed  of  branches  or  fibres  that  have  each 
stored  up  nourishment  along  its  length,  and  which  looks  like  a  bundle 
of  fusiform  roots.  The  crowfoot,  i)eony,  and  dahlia  furnish  examples  of 
fasciculated  roots.  Third,  the  moniliform  rooty  which  is  a  fibrous  root, 
the  branches  or  fibres  of  which  store  up  nourishment  at  intervals  along 
their  length,  and  have  the  appearance  of  strings  of  beads.  The  nut- 
grass  of  the  South  has  a  root  of  this  kind.  Fourth,  the  tubercular  root, 
some  of  whose  fibres  store  up  nourishment  in  a  somewhat  globular  form. 
The  root  of  the  rue  anemone  is  tubercular.  Drill  upon  classes  and  kinds 
of  roots  by  having  pupils  select  name  and  describe,  by  having  them  recall 
such  roots  as  they  remember  belonging  to  either  class  or  kind,  and  by 
having  them  draw  different  roots.  It  may  be  well  to  suggest  here  that  it 
is  perhaps  not  best  to  send  some  pupils  to  the  board  to  draw%  while  others 
are  describing,  as  the  attention  of  either  part  of  the  class  is  not  then  con- 
centrated upon  one  thing.  Let  all  observe  and  describe,  and  then  let  all 
draw  at  the  same  time. 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  109 

T.  What  do  roots  need  in  order  to  grow  ? 

Ch.  They  need  air. 

Ch.  They  need  moisture. 

Ch.  They  need  warmth. 

Ch.  They  need  soil. 

Ch.  They  need  darkness. 

Note.  —  The  T.  will  (if  possible)  show  pupils  plants  whose  roots  live 
in  the  water.  Aquatic  roots.  The  water  chickweed  is  an  example.  Aerial 
roots,  of  which  the  mangrove,  some  sugar  canes,  and  the  banyan,  furnish 
examples,  are  sent  out  from  stems  into  the  open  air,  and  at  length  reach 
the  ground  and  there  behave  as  ordinary  roots.  Such  plants  as  the  ivy 
and  trumpet  creeper  send  out  aerial  rootlets,  or  hooks,  whicli  hold  the  stems 
in  place,  by  fastening  into  walls  or  trunks  of  trees.  The  most  truly 
aerial  roots  are  those  which  live  entirely  upon  the  air.  The  Spanish  moss 
of  the  South,  some  lichens  and  many  species  of  orchids,  have  roots  of  this 
kind.  The  mistletoe,  dodder  (cuscuta),  and  Indian  pipe  (monotropa) 
have  parasitic  roots  (all  the  above  are  adventitious  roots). 

T.  We  have  now  to  think  of  the  uses  of  roots. 

Ch.  They  absorb  nourishment  from  the  earth,  and  convey  it  to  the 

stem. 
Ch.  They  hold  the  plant  in  place. 
Ch.  They  store  up  nourishment. 
Ch.  They  produce  new  plants. 
Ch.  They  are  used  for  food. 
Ch.  They  are  used  for  medicines. 
Ch.  They  are  used  for  dyeing. 
Ch.  They  supply  fuel. 
Ch.  They  supply  timber  for  ships. 

Note.  —  The  T.  will  lead  the  children  to  perceive  which  of  these  uses 
are  common  to  all  roots,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  state  what  roots  are 
used  for  food,  what  roots  for  medicine,  etc.  He  may  also  lead  them  to 
see  that  the  root-hairs  are  very  important  in  the  work  of  absorbing 
nourishment,  and  that  growth,  in  length,  takes  place  at  the  extreme  end 
of  the  root.  He  may  also  teach  that  roots  may  be  classified  according  to 
duration,  into  annual,  biennial,  ?a\&  perennial  roots.  Annual  roots  are 
those  which  live  but  one  season.  (The  grains  afford  good  examples  of 
these.)  Biennial  roots  die  at  tlie  close  of  the  second  season.  The  first 
year  is  spent  in  storing  up  nourishment  which  is  spent  the  second  year  in 
producing  the  aerial  parts  of  the  plant.  Carrots,  beets,  parsnips,  have  all 
biennial  roots.  Perennial  roots  are  those  that  last  from  year  to  year.  The 
roots  of  trees  and  shrubs  are  good  examples.     Annual  roots  are  always 


no 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


fibrous,  and  the  rootlets,  or  fibres,  are  very  small,  and  have  comparatively 
loose  structure.  Biennial  roots  are  compact  and  fleshy.  Perennial  roots 
are  woody,  and  in  their  general  structure  resemble  stems. 

Drill  upon  roots  in  much  the  same  way  as  upon  seeds.  Have  pictures 
of  different  kinds  of  roots  drawn  on  the  board.  Ask  for  reports  of 
observations  upon  growing  roots.  Have  pupils  try  experiments  with 
roots.  Place  plants  in  water  with  leaves  above  the  surface,  and  observe 
the  direction  of  the  rootlets  in  growing.  Place  others  in  water,  upside 
down,  leaves  immersed,  and  root  exposed  to  the  light  and  aii'.  Observe 
results. 


SUMMAKY  OF  WORK  UPON  ROOTS. 


The  Root. 


r.  Parts 


II.  Classes. 


•1 


., 


Main  root. 
Branches. 

Tap. 

Axial  or 

simple  primary 


Fibrous. 
Inaxial  or 


'Conical  (cone  shape).  —  Carroty 
parsnip. 

Fusiform  (spindle  shaped). — Beet, 
radish. 

Napiform  (turnip  shaped).  —  Tur- 
nip. 

(  Fasciculated.  —  Dahlia,  peony,  etc. 
-^  ^Nloniliform  (necklace).— iVM/^r«.s.s. 


^  multiple  primary  (Tubercular.  —  Rue  Anemone. 

r  Subterranean. —  Tap  roots  and  Jibro us  roots. 
lU.  Classes    as  J  Aerial.  —  Adventitious,  mangrove,  banyan,  etc. 
TO  Position  .  1  Aquatic.  —  Water  chickweed. 

[  Parasitic.  —  Mistletoe,  cuscuta,  monotropa. 

Annual.  —  Grains  and  many  flowering  plants. 
Biennial.  —  Carrots,  beets,  turnips,  etc. 
Perennial.  —  Trees  and  shrubs. 


IV.  Classes   as 
TO  Duration  . 


V.  Conditions 
OF  Growth    . 


V^I.  Uses 


r  Air. 
Moisture. 
Warmth. 
Soil. 
Darkness. 

Absorb  nourishment. 

Hold  plants  in  place. 

Store  up  nourishment. 

Produce  new  plants. 

Food. 

Medicines. 

Dyeing. 

Fuel. 

Timber. 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  Ill 

LESSOX  III. 

The  Stem. 

Teacher.  (Presenting  stems  to  class,  one  to  each  pupil.)     What  are 

these? 
Child.  They  are  the  stems  of  plants. 

T.  Examine  these  stems,  and  find  how  many  parts  each  has. 
Ch.  (Examining  closely  the  end.     If  he  cannot  see  the  end  plainly^ 

the  T.  will  allow  him  to  cut  it.)    This  stem  has  three  parts.  (Class. 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Name  those  parts  in  order. 
Ch.  The  bark,  wood,  and  pith. 
T.  How  many  have  stems  whose  parts  are  bark,  wood,  and  pith  ?    ( All 

have.) 
T.  You  may  think  of  some  stems  you  know,  whose  parts  are  bark,. 

wood,  and  pith.      (Children  name  several.      T.   may  here   lead 

pupils  to  see  that  the  bark  is  also  composed  of  parts,  and  if  they 

are  old  enough  to  understand,  may  show,  under  the  microscope, 

sections  of  stems,  showing  the  different  layers;   may  also  show 

them  where  growth  takes  place.) 
T.  There  are  other  parts  of  the  stem  which  you  cannot  distinguish 

with  the  naked  eye.     Since  this  is  so,  what  parts  shall  we  call 

those  which  we  can  so  easily  see? 
Ch.  We  may  call  them  the  principal  (chief)  parts. 
T.  AVhat  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  stem? 
Ch.  The  parts  of  a  stem  are  the  bark,  wood,  and  pith. 
T.  Examine  your  stems,  and  mention  one  thing  that  you  observe. 
Ch.  I  see  something  that  looks  like  a  little  knot  on  the  stem.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Each  one  find  as  many  of  these  little  knots  as  you  can  on  your 

stem.     (Children  count  nodes.) 
T.  (Presenting  stems  bearing  buds  and  leaves.)     Examine  these  stems^ 

and  tell  me  whether  you  find  little  knots  on  them. 
Ch.  Yes ;  these  stems  have  little  knots. 
T.  What  do  these  little  knots  mark  on  the  stem  ? 
Ch.  They  mark  the  places  where  the  buds  and  leaves  grow. 
T.  AVhich  grows  first,  the  bud  or  the  leaf  ? 
Ch.  The  bud  grows  first.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  The  places  (points)  from  which  the  buds  grow  are  called  nodes. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.     T..  write  on  board  word  nodes.) 
T.  Show  me  places  on  the  stem  from  which  no  buds  grow.     (Children 

show  internodes.) 


112 


LESSONS  ON   PLANTS. 


L   Stem. 

b  Bark. 
IV  Wood, 
p  Pith. 
IL   Stem. 

nnn   Nodes. 
i  i  i    Internodes. 


IIL   Viola  Cordata.    Showing  subter- 
ranean stem  or  root-stock. 

rV.   Geranium    Maculatum,      Wild 
Cranesbill.      Showing    thick- 
ened root-stock. 
V.   Stem.    Showing  nodes  with  leaves 
growing  from  them. 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  113 

T.  Where  are  these  places  in  regard  to  the  nodes  ? 

Ch.  They  are  between  the  nodes. 

T.  They  are  called  by  a  name  which  means  just  what  you  have  said, 

internodes.      (Simultaneous  recitation.      T.  write  on  board  word 

internodes.^ 
T.  'Wliat  are  the  nodes  and  internodes  of  the  stem? 
Ch.  They  are  parts  of  the  stem.     (T,  give  term  divisions  instead,  as 

parts  are  bark,  wood,  and  pith.) 
Ch.  The  divisions  of  a  stem  are  nodes  and  internodes.     (T.  may  here 

teach  leaf  axil,  which  is  the  angle  between  the  upper  side  of  the 

leaf  and  the  stem.) 
T.  (Presenting  stems  bearing  appendages  of  different  kinds.)     Name 

one  thing  that  grows  from  these  stems. 
Ch.  Buds  grow  from  this  stem. 
Ch.  Leaves  grow  from  this  stem. 
Ch.  Branches  grow  from  this  stem. 
Ch.  Flowers  grow  from  this  stem. 

Ch.  I  do  not  know  what  these  little  things  on  my  stem  are. 
T.  You  may  describe  them. 

Ch.  They  are  like  little  hairs  curled  nearly  round. 
T.  Who  knows  what  they  are?     (Children  do  not  know.) 
T.  They  are  called  tendrils.     Who  knows  what  they  are  for? 
Ch.  They  are  to  support  the  stem.     (T.  show  pea  and  grapevine  when 

growing.) 
T.  What  have  we  found  on  these  stems  ? 

Ch.  We  have  found  buds,  branches,  leaves,  flowers,  and  tendrils. 
T.  What  are  they  of  the  stems  ? 

Ch.  They  are  the  things  that  are  attached  to  the  stems.  . 
T.  Then  what  may  we  call  them  of  the  stems? 
Ch.  We  may  call  them  attachments  of  the  stems. 
T.  They  are  called  appendages  of  stems.    (Explain  word  appendages.) 

You  may  name  them. 
Ch.  The  appendages  of  stems  are  buds,  leaves,  branches,  flowers,  and 

tendrils.     (Lead  pupils  to  state  that  all  stems  do  not  bear  tendrils.) 
T.  Describe  the  stem  you  have,  thinking  of  its  size. 
Ch.  The  stem  I  have  is  long.     (Glass  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Suppose  it  were  growing,  how  would  you  describe  its  length  ? 
Ch.  I  should  say,  it  is  a  high  stem. 

T.  All  who  have  high  stems  may  hold  them  up.     (Children  do  so.) 
T.  Yes,  these  seem  to  be  quite  high  stems.     Think  of  some  stems  that 

are  higher  than  these. 
Ch.  The  stems  of  trees  are  higher  than  these.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 


114  LESSONS   ON  PLANTS. 

T.  Comparing  them  with  stems  of  trees,  what  may  you  say  these  are^ 
thinking  of  their  lengths  ? 

Ch.  They  are  low  stems.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Find  other  low  stems.     (Children  do  so,  describing.) 

T.  In  what  other  du-ection  must  you  observe  them  to  get  an  idea  of 
size? 

Ch.  We  must  observe  their  size  round.    (Class  decision.    T.  cojifirm.) 

T.  Thinking  of  their  size  round  (circumference),  what  kind  of  stems 
may  you  call  them  ? 

Ch.  They  are  slender  stems.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.  Ch. 
may  say  they  are  thin  stems,  if  so,  T.  may  give  term  slender.) 

T.  Comparing  the  stems  of  trees  with  these,  thinkinj^c  of  circumfer- 
ence, what  kind  of  stems  may  you  call  them  ? 

Ch.  The  stems  of  trees  are  thick  stems. 

T.  Name  as  many  plants  having  thick  stems  as  you  can.  Xame  a:j 
many  having  slender  stems  as  you  can.  Name  as  many  having 
high  stems,  and  as  many  having  low  stems  as  you  can.  Name 
stems  that  are  high  and  slender.  Name  stems  that  are  low  and 
thick.     (Children  name  many,  making  full  statements  about  each.) 

T.  What  have  you  learned  that  a  stem  maj'-  be  in  regard  to  size? 

Ch.  The  size  of  a  stem  may  be  high  or  low,  thick  or  slender. 

T.  What  is  the  form  of  the  stem  you  have  ? 

Ch.  The  form  of  the  stem  I  have  is  round.  (Class  decision.  T.  con- 
firm.    W^rite  on  board  word  round.) 

Ch.  The  stem  I  have  is  rounded  and  a  little  flattened.  (Class  de- 
cision.    T.  confirm,  giving  term  compressed.     AVrite   on   board.) 

Ch.  The  stem  I  have  is  flat  on  one  side  and  curved  on  the  other.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm,  giving  term  half-rounded.    Write  on  board.) 

Ch.  The  stem  I  have  has  little  ridges  with  hollows  in  between. 

T.  In  what  direction  do  the  ridges  run  ? 

Ch.  They  run  along  the  length.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm,  giving 
term  grooved.     Write  on  board.) 

Ch.  The  stem  I  have  has  three  sides. 

T.  How  do  those  sides  compare  in  leng-th  and  width  with  each  other? 

Ch.  They  are  equal.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm,  giving  term  tri- 
angular.    Write  on  board.) 

Note.  —  The  forms  of  stems  are  almost  innumerable,  and  children 
enjoy  finding  and  describing  them.  There  being  no  new  development 
work  required  here,  as  children  make  full  description  and  the  T.  gives 
the  term,  there  is  no  necessity  for  going  through  the  whole  list,  but  the 
T.,  of  course,  will  not  omit  any  forms. 

T.  What  have  you  learned  that  the  form  of  a  stem  may  be  ? 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  115 

Ch.  The  form  of  a  stem  may  be  rounded,  compressed,  half-rounded, 
grooved,  triangular,  acute-angled,  square,  four-angled,  five-sided,  etc. 

T.  Describe  the  stem  you  have,  thinking  of  its  surface. 

Ch.  The  surface  of  this  stem  is  smooth. 

Ch.  The  surface  of  this  stem  is  rough. 

Ch.  The  surface  of  this  stem  is  hairy. 

T.  All  who  have  stems  with  hairy  surfaces  may  hold  them  up. 
(Children  do  so,  describing.) 

T.  Those  whose  stems  have  not  hairs  on  the  surface  may  hold  them 
up.     (Children  do  so.) 

T.  What  is  true  of  the  surface  of  the  stem  you  have  ? 

Ch.  The  surface  is  covered  with  something  like  down.  (Class  de- 
cision.    T.  confirm,  giving  term  downy.) 

T.  Who  has  a  stem  with  a  surface  different  from  any  we  have  men- 
tioned? 

•Ch.  The  surface  of  this  stem  is  glossy.    (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  John,  what  is  true  of  the  surface  of  the  stem  you  have,  thinking 
of  the  one  that  is  glossy  ? 

Ch.  The  surface  of  this  stem  is  not  glossy.  It  is  dull.  (Class  de- 
cision.    T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  may  describe  the  stems  you  have  whose  surfaces  are  different 
from  any  we  have  observed. 

Ch.  The  surface  of  this  stem  is  covered. with  sharp  things.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm,  giving  word  prickly.) 

Ch.  This  stem  is  thorny.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm,  showing  the 
difference  between  prickles  and  thorns.  The  prickles  come  off 
with  the  bark ;  the  thorns  are  part  of  the  wood.) 

T.  Those  who  have  stems  whose  surfaces  have  none  of  the  things 
mentioned,  neither  hairs  nor  down  nor  prickles,  etc.,  may  hold 
them  up.     (Children  show  several,  and  T.  gives  term  glabrous.) 

T.  What  have  you  learned  in  regard  to  the  surface  of  a  stem? 

Ch.  The  surface  of  a  stem  may  be  smooth,  rough,  hairy,  downy, 
glossy,  dull,  prickly,  thorny,  glabrous,  etc. 

T.  You  may  now  speak  of  the  color  of  these  stems. 

Ch.  This  stem  is  red. 

Ch.  This  stem  is  green. 

Ch.  This  stem  is  brown. 

Ch.  This  stem  is  gray. 

Ch.  This  stem  is  yellow. 

Ch.  This  stem  is  purple  (or  purplish). 

Ch.  This  stem  is  bluish. 

Ch.  This  stem  is  spotted.     (Names  color  of  spots.) 

Ch.  This  stem  is  striped.     (Names  color  of  stripes.) 


116  LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 

Note.  —  The  T.  will  not  expect  to  get  statements  from  pupils  as 
glibly  as  they  are  given  here.  Many  pupils  will  not  know  color,  and  the 
T.  must  work  very  slowly  and  carefully. 

T.  John,  stand  out  on  the  floor  and  show  the  class  the  direction  in 

which  the  stem  you  have  grew.     (John  places  the  plant  on  the 

floor,  and,  holding  the  stem  upright,  states  that  it  grew  in  that 

direction.) 
T.  That  is  correct,  and  we  call  a  stem  that  grows  in  that  direction  or 

attitude   an  erect  stem.      (Simultaneous    recitation.     T.  confirms 

erect.') 
T.  Henry,  you  may  show  the  attitude  of  your  stem  while  growing. 
Ch.  (Showing  as  John  did.)     The  upper  part  of   this  stem  droops 

over.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  think  what  we  may  call  that  stem,  thinking  of  its  atti- 
tude? 
Ch.  It  is  a  drooping  stem.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on 

board  word  drooping.) 
T.  Name  all  the  drooping  stems  of  which  you  can  think.     (Children 

name  several,  making  a  full  statement  about  each.) 
T.  Jane,  describe  your  stem,  thinking  of  its  altitude. 
Ch.  (Showing  with  plant.)     This  stem  seems  to  be  on  the  ground. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  way  does  that  stem  differ  from  the  others  ? 
Ch.  It  has  little  hair-like  things  on  the  surface. 
T.  From  what  portion  of  the  stem  do  they  grow  ? 
Ch.  They  grow  from  the  nodes.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  are  they  like  ? 

Ch.  They  are  like  little  roots.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  They  are  like  what  class  of  roots? 
Ch.  They  are  like  fibrous  roots. 
T.  They  are  fibrous  (adventitious)  roots,  sent  out  from  the  nodes  for 

what  purpose  ? 
Ch.  They  are  sent  out  from  the  nodes  into  the  earth  to  draw  up 

nourishment  for  the  stem.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  And  in  what  altitude  do  they  keep  the  stem  ? 
Ch.  They  keep  it  fastened  close  to  the  ground. 
T.  Name   any   stems   you   can   that  have  this  attitude.      (Children 

name  several,  describing  each  in  regard  to  attitude.) 
T.  This  is  called  a  creeping   stem.      (Simultaneous   recitation.     T. 

write  on  board  word  creeping.) 
T.  Susan,  describe  the  stem  you  have,  thinking  of  its  attitude. 
Ch.  This  stem  lies  along  the  ground. 


LESSONS  ON   PLANTS.  117 

T.  How  does  it  differ  from  the  creeping  stem  ? 

Ch.  It  has  no  roots  growing  from  the  nodes. 

T.  Name  as  many  stems  as  you  can  that  lie  loosely  along  the  ground 

in  this  way.      (Children   name  several,  making  a  full  statement 

about  each.) 
T.  This  stem  is  called   a  trailing  stem.      (Simultaneous  recitation. 

T.  write  on  board  word  trailing.) 
T.  Who  has  a  stem  whose  attitude  is  different  from  any  we  have 

mentioned  ? 
Ch.  This  stem  grows  around  a  post  or  stick.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  Describe  how  it  grows  round  the  support. 
Ch.  It  twists  (twines)  itself  round  the  support. 
T.  Mention  all  the  stems  you  can  that  twine  in  this  way.     (Children 

mention  several,  making  full  statements.) 
T.  Who  can  make  a  name  for  this  stem  ? 
Ch.  It  is  a  twining  stem.     (Simultaneous   recitation.     T.  write  on 

board  word  twining.     Possibly  pupils  may   say  it  is   a  climbing 

stem.     If  so,  T.  will  show  them  that  that  is  true,  but  since  it 

climbs  by  twining,  we  call  it  a  twining  stem.) 
T.  Describe  another  stem,  thinking  of  its  attitude. 
Ch.  This  stem  climbs.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Describe  the  way  in  which  it  climbs. 
Ch.  It  has  tendrils  which  it  winds  round  a  support,  and  climbs  in  that 

way. 
T.  Who  knows  of  a  stem  that  climbs  in  some  other  way  ? 
Ch.  The  ivy  climbs  in  another  way. 
T.  How  does  it  climb  ? 
Ch.  (Examining.)  It  sends  out  little  things  that  look  like  teeth  that 

fasten  into  the  support,  and  it  climbs  by  means  of  them. 
T.  What  do  these  little  teeth  do  ? 

Ch.  They  hold  the  plant  in  place.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Then  what  may  we  call  them  ? 
Ch.  We  may  call  them  roots.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm,  referring 

to  aerial  rootlets.) 
T.  What  kind  of  stems  may  we  call  these,  thinking  of  their  attitude  ? 
Ch.  They  are  climbing  stems.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write 

on  board  word  climhing.) 
T.  Who  has  a  stem  that  has  an  attitude  different  from  any  we  have 

mentioned  ? 
Ch.  I  have  the  stem  of  a  rosebush,  and  I  can  hardly  describe   its 

attitude. 
T.  Name  one  thing  in  regard  to  the  attitude. 


118  LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 

Ch.  This  part  (to  top)  is  erect,  but  I  think  this  part  grew  along  the 

ground. 
Ch.  That  part  grew  under  the  ground. 

T.  Look  at  that  part  closely  and  tell  me  what  you  find  on  it. 
Ch.  I  find  noden  on  it. 

T.  What  do  you  find  growing  from  the  nodes  ? 
Ch.  I  find  branches  that  ran  up  through  the  earth. 
T.  How  many  think  this  part  is  a  part  of  the  stem?     (All  think  so.) 
T.  AVhy  do  you  think  it  is  a  part  of  the  stem  ? 
Ch.  Because  it  has  nodes.     A  root  has  no  nodes.    (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  Mention  any  stems  you  can  that  grow  in  the  same  way.    (Children 

mention  several,  making  full  statements  about  each.) 
T.  We  call  this  an  ascending  stem.      (Simultaneous  recitation.      T. 

write  on  board  word  ascending.) 
T.  How  many  different  kinds  of  stems  have  you  found,  thinking  of 

their  attitude  Y 
Ch.  We  have   found  erect,  drooping,  creeping,  trailing,  twining,  climb- 
ing, and  ascending  stems.     (Simultaneous  recitation.    After  which 

T.  has  pupils  describe  each  fully.) 
T.  Now  examine  these  stems  at  which  you  first  looked,  and  name 

parts  of  each. 
Ch.  The  parts  of  each  of  these  stems  are,  the  bark,  wood,  and  pith. 
T.  Where  are  these  parts  situated  in  regard  to  each  other  ? 
Ch.  The  bark  is  outside,  the  wood  is  next  to  the  bark,  and  the  pith  is 

next  the  wood,  in  the  center.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Find  other  stems  in  which  the  parts  are  arranged  in  the  same 

way.     (Children  find  several,  describing  each.) 
T.  (Presenting  pieces  of  stem  of  Indian  corn.)     Examine  this  stem, 

and  describe  the  arrangement  of  parts  in  regard  to  each  other. 

(Children  can  not  describe.) 
T.  How  many  parts  do  you  find  ? 
Ch.  We  find  three  parts,  as  in  the  other  stems. 
T.  Where  is  the  wood  in  regard  to  the  pith  ? 
Ch.  (After  some  examination  find  wood.)     The  wood  is  mixed  up 

with  the  pith.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Name  any  stems  you  can  whose    parts  are  arranged  as  in  the 

Indian   corn.      (Probably  children  know  of  none,  in  which  case 

the  T.  names  several.) 
T.  We  call  this  an  exogenous  stem  where  the  wood  grows  between  the 

bark  and  the  pith ;  and  this  stem  in  which  the  wood  is  mixed  up 

with  the  pith  is  an  endogenous  stem.    (Simultaneous  recitation.    T. 

write  on  board  exogenous  and  endogenous.    Give  meanings  of  terms 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS.  119 


ouldde  growers^  and  inside  growers.  Show  that  dicotyledonous 
seeds  produce  exogenous  stems,  and  monocotyledonous  seeds  produce 
endogenous  stems.  Show  that  in  an  endogenous  stem  the  bark  is  not 
distinct,  as  in  exogenous  stems.) 

T.  Thinking  of  their  manner  of  growth,  how  many  classes  of  stems 
have  you  learned  ? 

Ch.  We  have  learned  two  classes,  exogenous  and  endogenous  stems. 
(Have  pupils  describe  each.) 

T.  You  may  each  break  a  stem.  (Children  do  so.)  Jane,  what  is 
true  of  the  ease  with  which  you  broke  yours  ? 

Ch.  Mine  broke  very  easily. 

T.  How  many  have  stems  that  broke  very  easily  ?     (Pupils  state.) 

T.  How  many  have  stems  that  did  not  break  easily?     (Pupils  state.) 

T.  Why  did  your  stem  break  so  nmch  more  easily  than  the  one  John  has? 

Ch.  (Examining.)  His  stem  is  solid  and  mine  is  hollow.  (Class  de- 
cision.    T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  other  reason  is  there  ? 

Ch.  My  stem  has  not  much  wood,  and  his  has  a  great  deal.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  How  many  have  stems  that  have  a  great  deal  of  wood?  (Pupils 
state.) 

T.  You  may  name  as  many  stems  as  you  can  that  have  a  great  deal  of 
wood.     (Children  name  trees  and  shrubs.) 

T.  Who  can  think  of  a  good  name  for  stems  that  have  a  great  deal  of 
wood  ? 

Ch.  We  might  call  them  woody  stems.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm. 
Write  on  board  word  woody.) 

T.  Who  knows  a  name  for  those  stems  that  have  but  little  wood,  and 
many  of  which  are  hollow  ?  (Children  do  not  know.  T.  give  term 
herbaceous  stems.     Write  on  board.) 

T.  Name  all  the  herbaceous  stems  of  which  you  can  think.  (Children 
name  several,  making  full  statements  about  each.  T.  here  lead 
pupils  to  state  that  all  herbaceous  stems  are  annual,  and  die  down 
every  year ;  that  a  plant  may  have  an  annual  stem  and  a  biennial 
root ;  that  woody  stems  are  biennial  or  perennial,  and  belong  to 
shrubs  and  trees,  while  herbaceous  stems  belong  to  the  division  of 
herbs.) 

T.  Compare  the  stem  with  the  root,  and  state  one  difference  that  you 
observe. 

Ch.  (Examining.)     The  stem  is  green,  and  the  root  is  whitish. 

T.  State  another  difference  between  them. 

Ch.  This  stem  has  buds,  and  the  root  has  not.  (Class  decision.  T. 
confirm.) 


1^0  LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 

T.  What  do  all  stems  that  you  know  produce  ? 

Ch.  All  stems  that  I  know  produce  buds. 

T.  From  what  do  those  buds  grow  ? 

Ch.  They  grow  from  the  nodes. 

T,  Who  knows  a  root  that  has  nodes  ?  (Children  do  not  know  any  such.) 

T.  What  grows  from  nodes  ? 

Ch.  Buds  and  leaves  or  branches  grow  from  nodes. 

T.  (Presenting  potatoes.)     What  are  these  ? 

Ch.  They  are  roots.     (Children  have  heard  the  potato  called  a  root.) 

T.  What  do  they  produce  ? 

Ch.  They  produce  plants. 

T.  From  what  part  does  the  plant  grow  ? 

Ch.  It  grows  from  the  eye. 

T.  What  grows  from  the  eye  first  ? 

Ch.  A  bud  grows  from  it. 

T.  From  what  do  buds  grow  ? 

Ch.  Buds  grow  from  nodes. 

T.  Then  what  do  you  think  this  that  you  call  the  eye  is  ? 

Ch.  I  think  it  is  a  node.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Nodes  are  divisions  of  what  part  of  the  plant  ? 

Ch.  N^odes  are  divisions  of  the  stem. 

T.  What  is  true  of  the  root  in  regard  to  nodes  ? 

Ch.  The  root  has  no  nodes.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Then,  since  this  has  nodes  from  which  buds  and  branches  grow, 
what  do  you  think  it  is  ? 

Ch.  I  think  it  is  a  stem.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Where  does  it  grow  in  regard  to  the  ground? 

Ch.  It  grows  under  the  ground. 

T.  Where  do  the  greater  number  of  stems  that  you  know  grow  ? 

Ch.  They  grow  above  the  ground  (in  the  air). 

T.  "What  name  shall  we  give  those  stems  that  grow  in  the  air  ? 

Ch.  We  may  call  them  aerial  stems.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm. 
Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board  words  aerial  stems.') 

T.  A^Tiat  shall  we  call  those  stems  that  grow  under  the  ground  ? 

Ch.  We  shall  call  them  underground  stems.  (Class  decision.  T.  con- 
firm, and  gives  words  subterranean  stems  instead.  Simultaneous 
recitation.     T.  write  on  board  words  subterranean  stems.) 

T.  Name  five  aerial  stems.     (Children  do  so,  making  full  statements.) 

T.  Name  as  many  subterranean  stems  as  you  can.  (Children  do  not 
know  many  subterranean  stems,  and  T.  must  have  as  many  speci- 
mens to  show  as  possible.) 

T.  According  to  position,  how  many  classes  of  stems  have  you  found  ? 

Ch.  We  have  found  two  classes  of  stems,  according  to  position  :  aerial 
stems  and  subterranean  stems. 


I^SSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


121 


Note.  —  The  T.  may,  after  finishing  classes  of  stems,  spend  one  or  two 
recitations  upon  sap,  and  the  different  gums,  referring  to  them  in  the 
work  upon  Uses  that  will  come  last  of  all.  He  will  take  up  the  uses  of 
bark,  wood,  pith,  sap,  and  gums,  separately.  The  subject  of  sap  rising 
through  the  stem  to  the  branches  and  leaves,  there  receiving  oxygen,  and 
then  returning  through  the  tree  and  depositing  the  layer  which  on  one 
side  becomes  wood  and  on  the  other  bark,  is  of  the  greatest  interest,  and 
may  be  shown  to  comparatively  young  pupils.  It  might  be  well,  here,  to 
have  the  pupils  study  the  bark  and  find  the  different  layers.  The  work  in 
writing  and  drawing  ought  to  go  on  each  day  as  usual. 


SUMMARY   OF  WORK  UPON   STEMS. 


I.  Parts 


II.  Divisions 


III.  Appendages 


IV.  Size 


V.  Form 


VI.  Surface 


The  Stem. 
Parts  of  bark. 


Bark. 

AVood. 

Pith. 

Nodes. 

Internodes. 

(Leaf  axil.) 

Buds. 

Branches. 

Leaves. 

Flowers. 

Tendrils. 
L  (Rootlets.) 

High  r 

Low  j 

Thick  i 

Slender  [ 

r  Rounded. 

Compressed. 

Half-rounded. 

Grooved. 

Triangular. 

Acute-angled. 

Square. 

Four-angled. 

Five-sided. 

Six-sided. 

Smooth. 

Rough. 

Hairy. 

Downy. 

Glossy. 

Dull. 

Prickly. 
L  Thorny. 


Trees. 

Shrubs,  herbs. 
Trees. 
Shrubs,  herbs. 


122 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


VII.  Color 


VIII.  Altitude 


TX.  Class  1,  as  to 
Manner  of  Growth 
X.  Class  2,  as  to 
Structure.     . 


XI. 


Class  3,  as  to 
Position    .    . 


XII.  Uses  . 


r  Green. 

Brown. 

Red. 

Gray. 

Yellow. 

Purple. 

Bluish. 

Striped. 

Spotted. 
'  Erect,  branching.  —  Trees  and  shrubs. 

Erect.  —  Grasses,  corn,  sugar-cane. 

Drooping.  —  Fuchsia. 

Creeping.  —  White-clover,  strawberry. 

Trailing.  —  Knot-grass. 

Twining.  —  Morning-glory,  bean. 

Climbing.  \  I'  ^y  ^^"f rf '  Pe^^  grape-vine. 
"   (  2.  By  rootlets,  ivy,  trumpet-vine. 
^  Ascending.  —  Rose-bush. 
Exogenous,  dicotyledons. 
Endogenous,  monocotyledons. 
*   Woody  (perennials,  some  biennials). 
Herbaceous  (annuals). 

(  Culm  (jointed).  —  Grasses,  sedges. 
Aerial  <  Caudex  (scaly).  —  Palm. 
I  Scape.  —  Dandelion. 

f  Rhizoma.  —  Wild  cranesbill,  cala- 
mus. 
Subterranean  -l  Tuber.  —  Potato. 

Bulb,  -r—  Onion,  lily. 
__  Conn.  —  Indian  turnip,  crocus. 

1.  To  convey  nourishment  to  branches  and 
leaves. 

2.  To  store  up  nourishment. 

3.  To  produce  new  plants. 

4.  To  support  appendages. 

5.  For  food  (sugar-cane,  rhubarb,  grasses, 
corn-stalks). 

0.  For  fuel. 

7.  Timber  and  lumber  (pine,  spruce,  maple, 
etc.). 

8.  For  medicines  (mints). 

9.  Baskets,  chairs,  etc.  (willows), 
f  Protects  wood  in  trees  and  shrubs. 

For  boxes  and  canoes  (birch). 

Spice  (cinnamon). 

Cork. 

Medicine  (cinchona,  Peruvian  bark). 

Linen  (flax). 

Sugar  (sugar  maple,  sugar-cane). 

Rubber. 
D.  Use  of  J  Gum-arabic. 

Gums    1  Turpentine  (pine). 
Spruce  gum. 


A. 


B.  Uses  of 
Bark 


C.  Use  of 
Sap 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


128 


LESSON    IV. 


L  Parts 


SUMMARY  OF  WORK  UPON  BUDS. 
The  Bud. 


'  Leaves  or  flowers. 
Stem. 

Scales  ^  Protect  leaves,  flowers,  stem ,  etc.,  from 
Gum     >     cold,  dampness,  sudden  changes  of 

^  Cotton  )      weather,  etc. 


II. 


ni. 


THEY  Produce  . 


LT  ( 


Classes  as  to  Posi- 
tion ON  the  Stem 


IV.  Kinds  as  to  Cover- 
ing   


V.  Conditions  of 
Growth     .    . 


Flower  buds. 


'  Terminal  (growing  from  apex  of  the  stem).  — 
Maple,  hickory,  horse-chestnut,  etc. 

Lateral  (growing  from  sides  of  the  stem). 

Axillary  (growing  from  the  axils  of  leaves) .  — 
Locust,  buttonwood. 

Supernumerary  (two  or  more  growing  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ordinary  axillary  bud). 

Adventitious  (growing  without  order  from 
stems,  roots,  or  leaves). 

Scaly.  —  Horse-chestnut,  hickory,  etc.  (Found 
generally  on  trees  of  northern  climates.) 

Naked.  —  Sumac,  honey  locust,  etc.  (Found 
on  herbs  of  all  climates ;  also  found  on  per- 
ennials in  tropical  regions.) 


Latent  buds  are  those 
without  developing, 
invisible  externally. 

f  Nourishment. 
J  Light. 
)  Warmth, 
t  Air. 


which  survive  long 
They  are  generally 


VI.  Uses To  produce  the  aerial  parts  of  the  plant. 


124 


LESSONS   ON  PLANTS. 


LESSON    T. 


SUMMARY  OF  WORK  UPON  LEAVES. 


The   Leaf. 


I.  Parts 


r  Description  (full). 
Blade    -j  Veins  (mid-vein,  small  veins  and  veinlets). 
(Parenchyma  (pulpy  or  fleshy  part). 

(  Description  (full). 
Petiole  -l  Bundle  of  woody  fibres. 


(  Stipules. 


II.  Classes  as  to  (  Simple. 
Blade  .     .     .    (  Compound. 


III.  Classes  as  to 
Venation.    . 


Position 


Net-veined      (  Palmate.  —  jMaple. 

rexoo-enons^    ]  Pinnate.-Apple,birch,peach,etc. 

(^exogenous)    ^  p^rcate  or  forked. 

r  From  base  to  apex.  (Parts :  blade, 
Parallel-veined  J  sheath,  and  ligule).  —  Grasses, 
(endogenous)  1      corn,  etc. 

[  From  mid-rib  to  margin. 

r  Petiolate  (attached  by  a  petiole.  May  be  stipulate 
rV.  Classes  as  to  J      or  exstipulate). 

Insertion     .  1  Sessile  (without  a  petiole;  sitting  on  the  stem. 
[      May  be  stipulate  or  exstipulate). 

V    Ci  AssFs  4q  TO  (  ^auUne  (growing  along  the  stem). 
V.  ^LAbSEh  AS  loj  ^^^IqqI    (growing   from   the   stem   close   to   the 
(      ground). 

"Alternate  (one  leaf  growing  from  a  node). — 
Apple,  oak,  etc. 

Opposite  (two  leaves  growing  from  a  node). — 
Maple,  lilac,  etc. 

Verticillate  or  whorled  (three  or  more  leaves  grow- 
ing frpm  a  node).  —  Madder,  etc. 

Induplicate  or  inflexed  (folded  crosswise). — Tulip 

tree. 
Conduplicate  (folded  along  the  mid-rib).  —  Oak, 

cherry. 
Plicate  (folded  like  a  fan).  —  Maple,  currant. 
Circinate  (rolled  lengthwise).  —  Fern,  sundew. 
Convolute  (rolled  edgewise).  —  Cherry,  plum. 
Involute  (both  edges  rolled  inward  towards  the 

mid-rib).  —  Apple,  violet. 
Revolute  (both  edges  rolled  outward).  —  Willow, 

azalea. 


VI.  Phyllotaxy, 

or  Arrangement 

on  the  Stem  . 


VII.  Vernation,  or 
Arrangement  in 
the  Bud  .... 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


125 


Vin.  Forms  of 
Leaves 


IX.  Forms  of 
Bases   . 


X.  Forms  of 
Apexes 


XI.  Margins 


XII.  Motions  of. 
Leaves     . 


f  Peltate,  oval,  orbicular. 
Broadest  in  J  Elliptical,  oblong, 
the  Middle  1  Linear,  acicular. 

[  Acrose. 

r>       J    J.    x  C  Deltoid,  ovate,  lanceolate. 
Broadest  at  3  e^^^l^te,  cordate, 
tne  liase     ^  Reniform,  hastate,  sagittate. 

r  Obcordiform,  obovate. 
Broadest  at  J  Oblanceolate,  spatulate. 
the  Apex    1  Cuneate,  obcordate. 
[  Lyrate,  runcinate. 

r  Cordate. 
Auriculate. 
Oblique. 
Tapering. 
Abrupt. 

Clasping.  i 

Perfoliate. 
Connate. 
Decurrent. 

Acute. 

Acuminate. 

Obtuse. 

Truncate. 

Retuse. 

Obcordate. 

Emarginate. 

Mucronate. 

Cuspidate. 

Entire. 

Serrate. 

Dentate. 

Crenate. 

Repand. 

Sinuate. 

Incised. 

Lobed. 

C  left .  (  Abruptly  pinnate. 

Divided.  f  Pinnate  }  Unequally  pinnate. 

Parted.  (Interruptedly  pinnate. 

Bipinnate. 
^  Compound  .   ■<  Tripinnate. 

Five-fingered. 

Seven-fingered. 

Cirrose. 

Note.  —  Surface  and  Color  of  leaves  may  be  conr 
sidered  after  Margins. 

(  Turn  towards  the  sun. 
}  Venus'  fly-trap. 
(  Sensitive  plant. 


126 


LESSONS  ON   PLANTS. 


XIII.  Modifica- 
tions   . 


'  Venus'  fly-trap. 
Pitcher-plant. 
Bracts. 
Leaf  scales. 
Thorns. 
Prickles. 
Cones.  —  Tendrils. 


before  the  close  of  the 


r  Fugacious  (falling  early ; 
XIV.   Duration  of  J      season). 

Leaves     .     .  1  Deciduous  (falling  at  the  close  of  the  season). 
[^  Persistent  (remaining  through  the  winter). 

'  Absorb  nourishment  from  the  atmosphere. 
Act  as  limgs  to  the  plant. 
ij    A  f     f     A  ^  Tea,  palm. 
XV.  Uses     .     .     .  ^   ^^^^  ^°^  ^°      }  Cabbage,  lettuce,  etc. 
Used  in  medicines. 

Fibres  of  palm  leaves  used  for  thread  in  some 
comitries. 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


127 


LESSON   VI. 


SUMMARY  OF  WORK  UPON  INFLORESCENCE. 


I.  Parts 


Inflorescence. 

Peduncle  (stem  of    a  simple  flower,  or  of  a  cluster  of 

flowers). 
Scape  (a  naked  peduncle). 

Rachis  (a  peduncle  from  which  flowers  branch  off). 
Floret  (one  of  the  flowers  of  a  cluster). 
Pedicel  (stem  of  a  floret) . 

Bracts  (small  floral  leaves  growing  from  the  peduncle). 
Involucre  (a  whorl  of  bracts). 
_  Receptacle  (the  top  of  a  peduncle). 


IL  Classes - 


'  Solitary    -j 


Terminal. 
Axillary. 


Clustered 


Indefinite  or 
indeterminate 


Definite  or 
determinate 


'  Raceme  (lily  of  the  ' 
valley) 
Corymb  (yarrow) 
Umbel  (milkweed) 
Panicle  (oats) 
Thyrsus  (lilac) 
Spike  (plantain) 
Spadix  (calla  lily) 
Ament  (willow) 
Head  (clover)  J 

'  Cyme  (elder). 

Fascicle  (sweet-william). 

Glomerule  (mint). 

Verticillaster  (motherwort). 
,  Scorpioid  (forget-me-not). 


Florets 

having 

pedicels. 


Florets 

sessile. 


128 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


LESSON    TIL 


SUMMARY  OF  WORK  UPON  FLOWERS. 


The  Flower. 


'  Calyx  (cup ;  the  outer  circle  of  floral  leaves). 
Corolla  (crown  ;  the  inner  circle  of  floral  leaves). 
Stamens  (a thread;  slender  parts  inside  the  corolla). 
Pistil  or  pistils  (the  part  or  parts  in  the  center, 
I.  Parts     .     .     .  •{       surrounded  by  the  stamens). 

Perianth  (the  cal}Tc  and  corolla  when  not  easily 

distinguished). 
Receptacle  (the  part  upon  which  the  organs  of  the 
flower  are  inserted). 


II.  Protective 
Organs .    . 


(  Sepals. 
Calyx  .  ■<  Monosepalous. 
(  Polysepalous. 

(  Petals. 
Corolla    -<  Monopetalous. 
(  Polype  talous. 


m.  Essential 
Organs . 


(  Anther  (pollen). 
(  Stamens  4  Filament. 
(  Connective. 

( Stigma.  i 

^Pistil   .  •]  Style. 
(  Ovary. 


IV.  Kinds    . 


'  Complete  (having  four  sets  of  organs  present). 
Perfect  (ha\dng  stamens  and  pistils  present). 
Symmetrical  (same  number  of  parts  in  each  set  ot 

organs) . 
Regular  (petals  and  sepals  uniform). 
Pedunculate  (having  a  peduncle). 
Sessile  (without  a  peduncle). 
Monoecious  (stamens  and  pistils  on  same  plant). 
Dioecious  (stamens   and  pistils   on  two  different 

plants). 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


129 


V.  Modifications 
OP  Type     .    . 


'  \.  By  absence  of  parts : 

Of  stamens,  pistillate  (imperfect). 
Of  pistil,  staminate  (imperfect). 
Of  calyx,  asepalous  (incomplete). 
Of  corolla,  apetalous  (incomplete). 

2.  By  variation  from  type  number  : 

Unsymmeti'ical  (different  number  of  parts  in 
each  set  of  organs). 

3.  By  variation  in  form  and  size  of  petals  and  sepals : 

Irregular  (sepals  and  petals  not  uniform). 

4.  By  cohesion  of  parts  of  organs  : 

Of  sepals,  monosepalous  (myrtle). 
Of  petals,  monopetalous  (larkspur). 
Of  stamens,  monodelphous  (dandelion). 
Of  pistils,  compound. 

5.  By  adhesion  of  parts  of  organs  : 

Of  stamens  and  petals  (nearly  all  monopetalous 

flowers). 
Of  stamens  to  pistils  (hollyhock,  hibiscus) . 
Of  sepals  to  petals  (bishop's  cap) . 
Of  stamens  to  sepals  (currant  blossom). 


The  Calyx. 

""  Size. 
Form. 
Surface. 

I.  Description  <j  Cohesion  (monosepalous,  —  truncate,  toothed,  lobed, 
cleft,  parted) , 
Adnation  (inferior,  half-inferior,  superior). 
^Estivation  (arrangement  of  sepals  in  buds). 


IL  Parts 


III.  Use    . 


(  Tube. 

Monosepalous  calyx  ■<  Teeth  or  lobes. 
(Throat. 
^  Pappus. 

Protection  to  the  other  organs. 


rv.  Description 


r  Size. 
Form. 
Surface. 
Color. 
Texture. 


The  .Sepals. 


130 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


I.  Description 


n.  Parts 


in.  Uses 


IV.  Description 


The  Corolla. 
Size. 
Form. 
Surface. 
Texture. 
Color. 

Cohesion  (truncate,  toothed,  lobed,  cleft,  parted). 
Adnation  (hypogynous,  perigynous,  epigynous). 
^  ^Estivation  (arrangement  of  petals  in  the  bud). 


Petals 


Lamina. 
Claw. 
Spur. 
Crown. 


{Ornament. 
Protection  to  internal  organs  (many  corollas  close  in 
bad  weather). 
Attracts  bees. 

'  Size. 
Form. 
Surface. 
Texture. 
Color. 


I.  Parts 


II.  Kinds 


IV.  Adnation 


III.  Cohesion    .  . 


Stnmen!<. 

(  Anther  (contains  pollen,  hence  the  essential  portion). 
J  Filament  (the  stem  bearing  the  anther), 
j  Connective  (the  continuation  of  the  filament  uniting 
[      the  lobes  of  the  anther). 

Sessile  (anther  having  no  filament). 
Sterile  (filament  having  no  anther). 
Connivent  (stamens  converging). 
Exserted  (stamens  protruding  beyond  the  corolla). 
Included  (stamens  entirely  within  the  corolla). 
Didynamous  (stamens  four,  two  long  and  two  short). 
^  Tetradynamous  (stamens  six,  four  long  and  two  short). 

'  Syngenesious  (stamens  united  by  then-  anthers). 
Monadelphous  (stamens  united  by  filaments  into  one 

set). 

Diadelphous  (stamens  united  into  two  sets). 
Polyadelphous  (stamens  united  into  many  sets). 

'  Hypogynous  (stamens  borne  on  the  receptacle). 

Perigynous  (stamens  borne  of  the  calyx). 

Epipetalous  (stamens  borne  on  the  corolla). 
{  Alternate  (stamens  alternate  with  the  lobes  of  corolla). 

Opposite  (stamens  in  front  of  lobes  of  corolla). 

Epigynous  (stamens  on  summit  of  ovary). 
^  Gynandrous  (stamens  on  the  style,  —  orchids). 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


181 


I.  Kinds 


I.  Parts 


Filiform. 

Subulate. 

Dilated. 

Petaloid. 

Bidentate. 


Filament. 


Anther. 


II.  Adnation  .  ' 


III.  Dehiscence 


I.  Parts 


n.  Cohesion 


I.  Kinds 


I.  Kinds 


I.  Parts 


(  Lobes. 
'  I  Connective. 

Innate  (anther  firm  on  top  of  filament). 
Adnate  (anther  attached  by  its  whole  length  to  fila- 
ment). 
Extrorse  (anther  facing  the  petals). 
Jntrorse  (anther  facing  the  pistils). 
^  Versatile  (anther  attached  near  the  middle). 

{Longitudinal  (anther  opening  lengthwise). 
Transverse  (anther  opening  crosswise). 
Porous  (anther  opening  by  terminal  holes). 
Valved  (anther  opening  by  valves  or  doors). 

Pistils. 

(  Stigma  (the  top  or  tip  end  to  which  pollen  adheres). 

i  Style  (stem  bearing  stigma  on  its  top). 

(  Ovary  (the  portion  at  the  base  containing  the  ovules). 

(  Simple  (having  but  one  cell). 

}  Multiple  (a  collection  of  distinct  pistils). 

(  Compound  (several  united  carpels). 

Stigma. 

'  Sessile  (stigma  and  ovary,  no  style). 
Globose  (somew^hat  spherical  in  form). 
Capitate  (somew^hat  like  the  head  of  a  pin). 
Lobed  (somewhat  rounded). 
Feathered  (somewhat  like  a  feather). 
Linear  (somewhat  like  a  thread) . 

Style. 

Basal  (to  base  of  ovary). 
Lateral  (to  side  of  ovary). 
Terminal  (to  top  of  ovary). 

Ovary. 

^  Placenta  (the  surface  to  which  ovules  are  attached). 
Dissepiments  (partitions  of  ovary). 
Cells  (cavities  in  which  ovules  are  arranged). 
Ovule  (the  body  which,  after  fertilization,  becomes 
a  seed). 


11.  Adnation 


(  Inferior  (calyx  adheres  to  ovary) . 
I  Superior  (calyx  free  from  ovary). 


132 


LESSONS   ON  PLANTS. 


IfT.  Placentation 


TV.  Parts 


V.  Kinds  . 


VI. 


Direction  of 
Ovary     .     . 


VTI.  Use  of  Stamens 
AND  Pistils.     . 


''•Free-central  (ovary  one-celled;    ovules  attached 

to  a  central  column). 
Aiillary  (ovary  compound ;  ovules  attached  to  a 

central  axis). 
^  Parietal  (ovules  borne  on  the  walls  of  the  ovary). 

Ovules. 
Nucleus  (the  part  from  which   the  embryo  is 

developed). 
Primine  (outer  covering  of  the  ovule). 
Secundine  (inner  covering  of  the  ovule). 
Micropyle  (the  opening  of  the  coverings  of  the 

ovary). 
Funiculus  (the  stem  of  a  seed  or  o\mle). 
Hilum  (the  scar,  showing  place  of  attachment  of 

seed). 
Chalaza  (point  of  union  of  coats  and  nucleus). 
Rhaphe  (connection  between  nucleus  and  ovule). 

{Orthopterous  (straight). 
Campylotropous  (curved). 
Anatropous  (inverted). 
Amphitropous  (partly  inverted). 

r  Erect. 

Ascending. 
^  Horizontal. 

Pendulous. 

Suspended. 

To  fertilize  the  ovules  and  to  produce  seed. 
Agents  in  fertilization,  —  winds,  honey-bees  and 
other  insects. 


ODORS  OF  FLOWERS. 
CAUSED   BY   THE   PRESENCE   OF   VOLATILE    OIL. 

There  is  some  connection  or  correspondence  between  the  color  and 
odor  of  flowers.  White  flowers  are  generally  fragrant.  Many  flowers  of 
dull  hues  are  odorous,  thus  by  their  fragrance  compensating  for  their 
lack  of  color.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  gaily-colored  flow^ers  are 
either  inodorous  or  emit  a  disagreeable  perfume.  The  odors  of  flow^ers 
in  a  warm  climate  are  not  so  fine  and  delicate,  as  a  rule,  as  those  of 
flowers  growing  in  northern  regions.  A  few  lessons  upon  this  topic  would 
be  of  great  interest  and  profit. 

f  To  produce  fruit. 
To  supply  bees  with  material  for  making  honev. 

Uses  of  Flowers    .  ^  Jj"  fV^^^^  perfumes  (roses). 
Lsed  in  medicmes. 
For  ornament. 
V-  To  fill  the  world  with  beauty. 


LESSONS  ON  PLANTS. 


133 


I.  Parts 


II.  Dehiscence  -I 


III. 

Classes  Accord- 
ing TO  Number  * 
OF  Pistils     . 


LESSON    VIII. 

SUMMARY  OF  WORK  UPON  FRUITS. 

The  Fruit 
C  Seed. 
.  }  (  Epicarp  (the  outer  layer  of  the  pericarp). 

(  Pericarp  }  Mesocarp  (the  middle  layer). 

(  Endocarp  (the  inner  layer). 
'  Loculicidal  (opening  along  the  middle  of  the  back  of 
each  cell).  —  Iris. 
Septicidal  (opening  along  the  partitions).  —  Azalea^ 

rhododendron. 
Septifragal  (valves  break  away  from  the  partitions). 
—  ]\Iorning-glory. 
^  Circumcissile  (pyxis;  opening  all  round).  —  Plantain. 
'  Simple  (having  a  single  pistil,  either  simple  or  com- 
pound). 
Compound  or  aggregate  (many  carpels  clustered  to- 
gether on  one  receptacle ;  these  carpels  are  called 
Achenid).  —  Strawberry. 
Multiple  (resulting  from  many  flowers   aggregated 
into  a  mass).  —  Pineapple. 

Simple  Fruits. 
^.     1        (Follicle  (marsh  marigold). 
^^f^      4  Legume  (pea,  bean), 
pistil        ^  Loment(desmodiumortick, trefoil). 


I.  Kinds 


Dry  Fruits. 
Dehiscent 


Indehiscent 


(Capsule  (any  pod  of  a  compound 

Compound  <j  siHque  {mustard) . 

pistu        1^  ^\\\c\q  (shepherd's  purse). 

(  Berry  (currant,  grape), 
x^,    ,     J  Hesperidium  (orange). 

^^  -^  I  Pepo  (cucumber,  squash,  pumpkin). 
1^  Pome  (apple,  pear,  quince). 

{Drupe  (peach,  plum,  cherry). 
n  if  Blackberry. 

Compound  |  R^^p^erry. 

'  Acheniura  (dandelion,  succory). 

Utricle  (ligweed). 

Caryopsis  or  grain  (wheat,  Indian  corn). 

Nut  (cocoanut,  chestnut). 

Glans  (acorn). 

Samara  (maple,  ash,  elm). 

Strobile  (a  scaly  multiple  fruit,  —  hop- 
cones,  juniper  berry,  and  red  cedar 
closed  cones). 


Stone 


Dry 


5  To  reproduce  plants. 
For  food. 
Used  in  medicines. 


LESsoisrs  o]sr  ih"sects. 

THE    GRASSHOPPER. 
INTRODUCTION. 

The  aim  of  these  lessons  is  not  merely  to  put  children  in  possession  of 
a  certain  amount  of  scientific  knowledge  concerning  insects,  as  such 
knowledge  would  of  itseK  be  of  very  little  use,  but  the  design  is  to  enable 
them  to  express  fluently  and  correctly  such  knowledge  as  they  may  gain. 
To  this  end  particular  attention  must  be  given  to  oral  language,  penman- 
ship, spelling,  the  use  of  capital  letters,  punctuation,  composition,  and 
drawing. 

The  object  of  language  lessons  is  to  teach  pupils  to  talk  and  write  cor- 
rectly. If  this  work  is  carried  on  properly,  every  lesson  will  be  a  lan- 
guage lesson  of  much  greater  value  than  those  we  find  in  books  arranged 
for  the  purpose.  The  child  will  have  a  subject  full  of  interest  about \ 
which  he  can  talk  and  write.  With  a  little  care  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  the  irksomeness  of  the  mechanical  part  of  the  work  need  never 
be  felt,  and  isolated  lessons  in  spelling,  writing,  language,  drawing,  and 
composition  may,  to  a  great  extent,  be  done  away  with.  Though  scien- 
tific work  in  entomology  is  only  a  secondary  aim,  the  teacher  will  find 
that  he  is  laying  an  excellent  foundation  for  future  scientific  investiga- 
tion, while  the  pupils  are  gaining  power  to  observe,  think,  and  talk  intel- 
ligently upon  many  subjects  besides  the  one  under  consideration. 

As  to  the  value  of  insect-lessons  compared  with  that  of  any  other 
branch  of  natural  history,  I  think  that  it  is  of  more  worth  than  either 
mineralogy  or  botany,  as  children  are  more  interested  in  studying  animals 
than  either  stones  or  plants.  The  specimens  are  easily  obtained,  conven- 
ient to  handle,  while  a  consideration  of  the  structure  and  uses  of  parts, 
together  with  the  habits  of  these  little  creatures,  affords  matter  for  the 
deepest  thought. 

Another  reason  for  the  study  of  insects  is  that  probably  some  knowl- 
edge in  this  direction  may  lead  to  the  means  of  preventing  the  destruction 
yearly  wrought  in  field  and  garden  by  these  little  creatiu^es. 


136  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

Apparatus. 

The  teacher  should  be  provided  with  cases  for  insects,  and,  as  soon  as 
lessons  have  begun,  the  children  should  employ  every  leisure  minute  in 
collecting  material  for  future  use.  These  cases  may  be  made  of  soft  wood, 
which  may  be  stained  to  look  like  black  walnut.  A  convenient  length  is 
three  feet  long  by  two  and  one-half  wide,  and  four  or  five  inches  deep. 
The  cover  should  be  fastened  with  hinges  and  a  lock  or  spring  catch,  and 
may  be  of  glass.  The  cases  may  be  lined  with  sheet  cork  covered  with  a 
layer  of  thick  drawing-paper ;  or,  several  layers  of  drawing-paper  will  do 
very  well  without  the  cork.  A  small  piece  of  cotton  saturated  with  car- 
bolic acid,  and  placed  in  one  corner  of  the  case,  will  be  effective  in  keeping 
small  insects  that  may  be  inclined  to  prey  upon  the  specimens. 

Besides  the  cases  two  or  three  setting-boxes  will  be  needed.  These 
may  be  of  wood  or  thick  paper  (envelope  boxes  will  do),  having  slats  of 
cork  or  soft  wood  arranged  lengthwise  along  the  bottom.  These  slats 
must  be  sufficiently  far  apart  to  admit  the  body  of  the  insect  between 
them,  while  the  wings  are  spread  out  and  pinned  on  the  tops.  Aiter  be- 
ing in  this  position  for  a  few  days  the  insects  become  hard,  and  may  be 
transferred  to  the  cases.  Insect-pins  should  be  used,  as  others  are  incon- 
venient. Grasshoppers,  beetles,  and  crickets  may  be  placed  in  the  cases 
as  soon  as  they  are  killed,  miless  it  is  desirable  to  preserve  them  with  the 
wings  spread.  For  butterflies,  wasps,  and  the  different  kinds  of  dragon- 
flies,  the  setting-boxes  are  very  necessary.  K  the  insects  become  hardened 
before  they  can  be  placed  in  the  setting-boxes,  they  may  be  softened  by 
being  placed  on  damp  sand  for  a  day  or  two.  For  collecting  eggs,  larvae, 
etc.,  boxes  having  small  compartments  may  be  used.  Care  should  be 
taken  that  no  two  specimens  of  different  kinds  are  placed  together.  The 
teacher  should  enter  in  a  note-book  the  dates  when  specimens  are  brought 
in,  the  changes  they  undergo,  and  any  particulars  that  are  of  interest  in 
the  work. 

Methods  of  Killing  Specimens. 

Different  persons  employ  different  means  for  killing  specimens.  Chlo- 
roform, ether,  and  ammonia  are  used  by  some,  cyanide  of  potassium  by 
others,  while  some  recommend  boiling  water  for  beetles.  Perhaps  the 
most  effective  means  for  killing  grasshoppers  and  beetles  is  immersion  in 
alcohol,  though  the  specimens  must  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  are  dead, 
as,  if  allowed  to  remain  long  they  will  become  brittle,  and  may  lose  their 
color.  The  specimens  which  the  children  are  to  handle  may  be  kept  hi 
alcohol,  however,  as  the  brittleness  does  not  matter,  and  the  alcohol  re- 
moves offensive  odors.  The  teacher  should  have  an  abundance  of  speci- 
mens on  hand,  so  that  if  one  is  destroyed  it  can  be  at  once  replaced. 


LESSONS  ON  INSECTS.  I37 

Butterflies  may  be  killed  by  turning  the  wings  back  and  pressing  the 
thorax  near  the  head  closely  between  the  thumb  and  finger. 

The  insects  given  to  the  pupils  for  examination  should  each  be  fast- 
ened on  a  bit  of  cork  or  soft  wood  by  a  pin  passing  through  the  body. 
Every  member  of  the  class  should  have  a  specimen,  and  should  be  re- 
quired to  make  his  own  observations.  Each  child  should  have  a  needle 
fixed  in  a  short  handle,  for  the  purpose  of  moving  the  smaller  parts.  The 
class  sliould  also  be  provided  with  small  knives  and  magnifying  lenses. 
The  lenses  known  as  "  linen  triers  "  are  the  most  convenient.  Each  child 
should  have  two  blank-books,  one  for  notes  and  one  for  drawings  ;  a  good 
drawing-pencil  and  eraser,  and  a  pencil  (dr  pen  and  ink  would  be  better) 
for  writing.  If  the  writing  is  done  with  ink,  good  pens  and  blotting-pa- 
per may  be  added  to  the  list  of  necessary  articles.  The  teacher  needs  a 
set  of  shelves  or  a  cabinet,  where  bottles  containing  specimens  may  be 
placed. 

The  most  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  cleanliness  and  neat- 
ness of  the  work,  or  else  the  natural  interest  will  very  soon  be  overcome 
by  disgust.  Specimens  that  are  not  kept  in  alcohol  may  be  kept  in  glass 
or  tin  cases,  carefully  closed.  Wooden  boxes  are,  at  any  time,  liable  to 
be  invaded  by  small  insects  in  search  of  food. 

One  thing  more  should  be  in  the  school-room :  a  scrap-book,  in  which 
the  teacher  may  paste  prose  items  and  bits  of  poetry  cut  from  newspapers, 
and  bearing  upon  the  subject  under  consideration.  The  children  should 
be  invited  to  contribute  to  this  scrap-book,  and  may  thus  be  induced  to 
read  papers  and  books  bearing  upon  the  subject.  Later,  another  book 
may  be  added,  in  which  carefully  copied  facts  may  be  inserted,  together 
with  items  from  the  children,  stating  any  discoveries  they  themselves 
have  made,  and  carefully  written  descriptions  of  particular  orders  of 
insects. 

I  fear  that  some  teachers  may  be  deterred  from  attempting  this  work 
by  a  consideration  of  the  details  requiring  attention.  To  such  I  can  only 
say,  that  success  in  any  direction  is  secured  by  close  attention  to  details. 
The  results  in  this  work  will  more  than  repay  the  effort  expended. 

The  order  here  presented  is  not  by  any  means  the  best  that  can  be 
given.  It  is  one  way  of  conducting  lessons.  If  the  teacher  finds  a  better, 
by  all  means  let  him  follow  it. 

In  the  study  of  the  field  cricket  the  house  and  mole  cricket  may  be  in- 
cluded ;  the  teacher  adding  to  the  tabular  view  any  items  that  may  be 
necessary. 


188 


LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 


LESSON  I. 
OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,   Conception,    Comparison,  Reason,  Judgment, 
and  Language.     {Spoken,  Written,  and  Drawing.) 


POINT. 


To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Size,  Form,  Surface,  Color,  and  Princi- 
cipal  Parts  of  the  grasshopper. 


a  a  Antennae. 

6  Shield. 

c  Compound  eye. 

d  Abdomen. 


e   Upper  wings  (folded) . 
//  Hind  legs. 
h    Fore  leg. 
i   Middle  leg. 


mm  mm   Tarsi. 

n  n    Spiracles. 
o   Mouth. 


MATTER. 


1.  This  grasshopper  is  about  two  inches  long,  and  about  half  an   inch  in 
thickness,  and  one-fourtli  of  an  inch  tvide. 

2.  It  has  a  body  shaped  something  like  a  tube  a  little  flattened,  and  tapers 

at  one  end. 

3.  It  has  a  smooth  surface. 

4.  Its  color  is  light  brown,  dotted  tvith  dark  broivn  spots. 

5.  It  has  three  principal  parts,  —  the  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (Having  presented  specimens.)     You  may  tell  me  the  name 
of  this  little  creature. 

Child.  It  is  a  grasshopper.     (^lany  of  the 
children  will  give  the  name  hopper  grass.) 

T.  If  you  were  going  to  describe  it  to  a 
person  who  had  never  seen  it,  what  would 
you  mention  first  ? 
Ch.  I  should  mention  its  size  first.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  In  order  to  get  an  idea  of  its  size,  how  many  dimensions  must  you 
consider. 


II.  Small  Field  Grass- 
hopper. 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  139 

Ch.  We  must  consider  length,  width  (or  breadth),  and  thickness. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  is  the  size  of  this  grasshopper  ? 

Ch.  This  grasshopper  is  about  two  inches  long,  about  half  an  inch  in 
thickness  (measuring  from  back  through),  and  about  one-fourth 
(or  perhaps  a  little  less)  of  an  inch  wide  (across  the  back). 

Note.  —  In  considering  size,  a  class  decision  will  be  made  not  by 
guessing,  or  agreeing  with  some  one  who  has  guessed,  but  by  actual 
measurement.  Before  measuring,  however,  the  pupils  should  be  allov^ed 
to  judge  of  lengih  in  any  direction. 

T.  What  of  the  gi*asshopper  will  you  describe  besides  the  size  ? 

Ch.  We  might  describe  the  form.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  is  the  form  of  this  grasshoi3per  ? 

Ch.  If  we  look  at  the  side  it  is  somewhat  oblong. 

T.  Who  has  another  opinion  ? 

Ch.  It  is  nearly  round. 

T.  What  objection  do  you  make  to  that? 

Ch.  It  is  not  round.     It  has  a  body  something  like  a  tube. 

T.  (Shows  tube.)  How  many  think  the  form  of  its  body  is  something 
like  this  ? 

Ch.  It  is  like  a  tube  that  has  been  flattened  a  little. 

T.  What  other  difference  do  you  observe  ? 

Ch.  It  tapers  at  one  end  and  the  tube  does  not. 

T.  Now,  who  can  describe  the  form  of  the  body  of  the  grasshopper  ? 

Ch.  It  has  a  body  something  like  a  tube  that  has  been  a  little  flat- 
tened, and  tapers  at  one  end. 

T.  What  shall  we  describe  next  ? 

Ch.  We  might  describe  the  surface. 
-     T.  What  sense  have  you  used  to  find  out  what  you  have  stated  ? 

Ch.  We  have  used  the  sense  of  sight. 

T.  What  sense  will  you  use  to  find  what  is  true  of  the  surface  ? 

Ch.  We  shall  use  the  sense  of  sight  and  touch.  (Class  decision.  T. 
confirm.) 

T.  What  kind  of  surface  has  the  body  of  this  grasshopper  ?     . 

Ch.  It  has  a  smooth  surface.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  of  the  grasshopper  shall  we  next  describe  ? 

Ch.  We  shall  describe  the  color. 

T.  What  color  is  this  grasshopper? 

Ch,  It  is  brown.     (Children  object.) 

T.  What  objection  do  you  make  to  that  statement? 

Ch.  It  is  not  quite  true. 


140  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

T.  What  is  true  of  it  in  regard  to  color? 

Ch.  It  has  two  colors. 

T,  Very  well,  describe  its  colors. 

Ch.  It  is  brown,  with  nearly  black  spots. 

T.  How  many  think  that  statement  is  exactly  true  ? 

Ch.  It  is  not  quite  true.  The  colors  are  not  brown  and  black,  but 
light  brown  and  dark  brown.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  may  make  the  statement  in  regard  to  color. 

Ch.  The  body  is  light  brown,  dotted  with  dark  brown  spots.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  have  examined  the  grasshopper  as  a  whole.  What  will  you  do 
next? 

Ch.  We  shall  study  its  parts. 

T.  With  which  part  will  you  begin  ? 

Ch.  We  might  begin  with  the  head. 

T.  How  many  see  the  head?     (All  do,  and  all  touch  it.) 

T.  What  is  the  next  part  you  see  ? 

Ch.  I  see  the  body. 

T.  IVTiat  part  do  you  call  the  body  ? 

Ch.  I  call  the  part  next  the  head  the  body. 

T.  Begin  just  where  the  head  joins  the  part  you  call  the  body,  and 
trace  it  as  far  as  it  goes. 

Ch.  It  goes  to  the  tail. 

T<.  That  part  between  the  head  and  tail  is  called  the  thorax.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.     T.  write  on  board  word  thorax.') 

T.  Trace  the  length  of  the  thorax  and  tell  me  what  comes  after  it. 

Ch.  The  tail  comes  after  the  thorax. 

T.  The  part  that  comes  next  to  the  thorax  is  called  the  abdomen. 
(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  \^Tite  on  board  word  abdomen.) 

T.  Now  you  may  show  me  the  different  parts  you  have  found,  and 
name  them.  ♦ 

Ch.  This  is  the  head,  this  is  the  thorax,  and  this  is  the  abdomen. 
(Several  children  make  the  same  statement,  until  the  teacher  is 
certain  that  they  all  know  the  names  for  the  parts.) 

T.  Look  carefully,  and  find  other  parts  of  the  grasshopper's  body. 

Ch.  I  see  the  eyes. 

Ch.  I  see  the  horns. 

Ch.  I  see  the  legs. 

Ch.  I  see  the  wings. 

T.  AVhere  are  the  eyes  and  horns? 

Ch.  They  are  on  the  head.  . 

T.  Then  you  will  call  them  parts  of  what? 

Ch.  They  are  parts  of  the  head.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  141 

T.  Now,  where  are  the  wings  and  legs  ? 

Ch.  They  are  on  the  thorax. 

T.  Then  what  may  you  call  them  of  the  thorax  ? 

Ch.  They  are  parts  of  the  thorax. 

T.  You  may  call  them  attachments  of  the  thorax.     Now,  how  many 

pai'ts  of  the  body  have  you  found  ? 
Ch.  We  have  found  three  parts  of  the  body,  and  then  we  found  parts 

of  those  parts.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Which  of  these  are  the  most  important  ? 
Ch.  The  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen,  are  the  most  important.     (Claos 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Since  that  is  true,  what  parts  may  you  call  them? 
Ch.  We  might  call  them  the  chief  (or  principal)  parts. 
T.  Then  make  a  statement  in  regard  to  the  parts  that  compose  the 

body  of  the  grasshopper. 
Ch.  It  has  three  principal  parts,  the  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 

Drill,  by  having  children  describe  the  size,  form,  surface,  and  color, 
and  by  touching  and  naming  the  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen.  If  the 
children  are  too  young  to  write  freely,  the  T.  may  write  on  the  board  the 
following  table :  — 

Grasshopper. 

Parts:    1.  Head. 

2.  Thorax. 
\3.  Abdomen.  ' 

The  children  may  copy  this  neatly  in  their  books.  If  the  pupils  can 
write,  the  T.  may  write  on  board  a  series  of  questions  covering  the  work 
that  has  been  developed.  The  children  will  write  the  answers  in  their 
note-books.  The  questions  for  the  lesson  just  developed  would  be  about 
as  follows :  — 

Grasshopper. 

1.  What  is  the  length  of  the  grasshopper? 

2.  What  is  the  thickness  of  the  grasshopper  ? 

3.  What  is  the  width  of  the  grasshopper  ? 

4.  "^Hiat  is  the  form  of  the  grasshopper  ? 

5.  Describe  the  surface  of  the  grasshopper. 

6.  What  color  is  the  grasshopper  ? 

7.  Name  the  principal  parts  of  the  body. 

While  the  pupils  are  writing,  the  T.  attends  to  the  use  of  capital  letters, 
spelling,  punctuation,  and  penmanship.  This  may  be  done  by  passing 
among  the  pupils  while  writing,  or  by  calling  attention  for  a  minute  to  a 


142  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

a  sentence  properly  written  on  the  board.  About  fifteen  minutes  should 
be  given  to  writing,  and  then  fifteen  minutes  may  be  devoted  to  drawing 
the  grasshopper,  the  insects  being  placed  in  suitable  positions  on  each 
child's  desk,  and  not  moved  during  the  work.  Great  care  should  be 
given  to  leading  the  children  to  draw  what  he  sees,  and  nothing  more, 
the  idea  of  truthfulness  being  prominent.  The  T.  should  be  careful, 
that  while  drawing  the  children  are  not  troubled  by  cross-lights  from 
the  windows.  With  very  little  trouble  shades  may  be  constructed  to 
cover  such  windows  as  ought  to  be  darkened  during  the  drawing  hour. 
As  preparatory  work  for  the  next  day,  the  T.  may  request  the  children 
to  spend  twenty  minutes  (or  longer)  in  the  field,  or  garden,  observing 
insects  and  collecting  for  the  cabinets.  If  out-door  observation  is  not 
practicable,  the  pupils  may  be  required  to  write  five  or  six  sentences  each 
evening,  giving  an  account  of  the  work  in  school  during  the  day.  If  this 
part  of  the  work  is  carried  on  carefully,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
getting  the  pupils  to  write  compositions,  as  they  are  called.  Each  day's 
work  will  be  a  composition,  and  the  young  people  will  be  as  much  accus- 
tomed to  expressing  their  thoughts  on  paper,  as  to  speaking.  In  this 
department  do  not  have  the  pupils  learn  by  rote  anything  upon  the  sub- 
ject they  are  studying. 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  143 


LESSON   II. 

Review  general  description  of  the  grasshopper,  and  parts,  —  head,  thorax, 
and  abdomen. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Judgment,  and 
La7iguage. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Size,  Form,  Surface,  and  Color  of  the 
head,  with  parts,  eyes,  aniennce,  and  mouth  parts. 

MATTER. 

1.  The  head  of  this  grasshopper  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  vertically,  and 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick,  from  side  to  side. 

2.  It  is  shaped  something  like  a  horse's  head. 

3.  It  has  a  smooth  surface. 

4.  It  is  light-brown  in  color,  dotted  with  small,  dark-brown  spots. 

5.  Attached  to  the  head  are  two  antenncB,  two  compound  eyes,  three  small 
simple  eyes  (ocelli^,  and  many  mouth  parts. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  You  may  now  examine  the  head  of  the  grasshopper,  and  be 
careful  to  make   your  statements  in  regard  to  the 
specimens  you  have,  as  there  are  many  other  grass- 
hoppers that  you  have  not  seen,  that  may  differ 
from  those  you  have  seen. 

Child.  The  head  of  this  grasshopper  is  about  half  an 

inch  long.  III.  Arrangement 

T.  In  what  direction  do  you  measure  to  get  the  length     of  cells  of  a  com- 

of  the  head?  pound  eye. 

Ch.  Up  and  down. 

T.  Who  can  give  a  word  that  will  tell  us  in  what  direction  up  and 

down  is  ? 
Ch.  We  measure  vertically.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  In  what  other  direction  can  we  measure  the  head  ? 
Ch.  We  may  measure  it  horizontally. 
T.  And  what  of  the  head  will  that  measurement  give  ? 
Ch.  It  will  give  the  thickness. 
T.  You  may  make  a  statement  in  regard  to  the  size  of  the  head^ 

including  both  measurements. 


144  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

Ch.  The  head  of  this  grasshopper  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  verti- 
cally, and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick,  measuring  horizontally. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  is  the  next  statement  you  are  prepared  to  make  in  regard  to 
the  head  ? 

Ch.  I  notice  the  shape,  but  I  cannot  describe  it. 

T.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  shape.  Perhaps  you  can  think  of 
some  object  you  have  seen,  that  the  head  resembles  in  shape. 

Ch.  (After  several  attempts.)  It  is  shaped  something  like  a  horse's 
head.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.  The  T.  will  accept  such  a 
description  for  the  present,  as  the  form  of  the  head  is  the  most 
difficult  part  to  describe,  and  the  pupils  have  not  many  objects 
with  which  to  compare.) 

T.  You  may  describe  the  surface. 

Ch.  It  has  a  smooth  surface.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  is  true  of  the  color  ? 

Ch.  The  color  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  rest  of  the  body. 

T.  What  difference  do  you  observe  ? 

Ch.  The  dark  brown  spots  are  smaller  than  those  on  the  body. 

T.  Now  make  a  very  careful  statement  in  regard  to  the  color  of  the  head. 

Ch.  It  is  light  brown,  dotted  with  small,  dark  brown  spots.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  else  do  you  notice  ? 

Ch.  I  see  two  things  on  the  head  that  are  something  like  horns. 

T.  How  many  see  these  ?     (All  do.) 

T. .  Xow  make  a  very  careful  description  of  them,  taking  care  to  men- 
tion every  point. 

Ch.  They  are  about  one  inch  long.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  In  what  other  direction  may  you  measure  them  ? 

Ch.  We  might  measure  their  size  round,  only  they  are  so  small. 

T.  Then  what  statement  are  you  prepared  to  make  in  regard  to  their 
size  ? 

Ch.  They  are  long  and  slender.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Continue  the  description. 

Ch.  They  are  shaped  like  a  small  tube.    (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  The  next  may  speak  of  the  surface. 

Ch.  They  feel  smooth - 

T.  Hold  them  up  to  the  light  and  tell  me  what  you  observe. 

Ch.  They  are  made  up  of  little  rings  all  joined  together.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  may  use  the  word  jointed  instead  of  joined,  as  that  expresses 
the  manner  in  which  they  are  fastened  together.  We  are  ready  for 
the  next  observation. 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  145 

Ch.  They  are  of  a  very  dark  brown  color.     (Class  decision,     T.  con- 
firm.) 
T.  You  may  describe  their  position. 
Ch.  They  are  on  the  upper  part  of  the  head. 
T.  Who  can  describe  their  position  a  little  more  accurately  ? 
Ch.  They  are  on  the  upper  front  part  of  the  head.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  These  are  called  the  antennce  of  the  grasshopper.     (Simultaneous 

recitation.  T.  write  on  board.) 
T.  Of  what  use  are  these  antennae  ? 
Ch.  The  grasshopper  feels  with  them. 

7\  Of  what  other  use  may  they  be  ?     (Children  do  not  know.) 
T.  It  is  supposed  that  they  are  organs  of  both  feeling  (touch)  and 

smelling. 
T.  How  many  have  seen  the  grasshopper  move  the  antennae  ?     (Some 

of  the  children  have,  perhaps,  observed  this.     If  they  have  not,  the 

teacher  will  call  their   attention  to  it,  and  have  them  watch  the 

grasshopper  in  the  field,  and  require  them  to  give  reasons  for  the 

different  motions.) 
Ch,  When  it  jumps,  the  antennae  are  pointed  straight  forward ;  when 

it  is  on  the  ground,  the  antennae  move  upward  or  downward,  or  to 

either  side. 
Ch.  I  think  whenever  the    grasshopper  is   disturbed  it  points  the 

antennae  straight  forward. 
T.  What  else  do  you  notice  on  the  head  besides  the  antennae  ? 
Ch.  I  see  two  eyes.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  you  may  describe  those  eyes  very  carefully,  each  making  one 

statement. 
Ch.  They  are  about  as  large  as  the  head  of  a  pin. 
Ch.  They  stand  out  from  the  head. 
Ch.  They  are  elliptical  in  form. 

Ch.  They  are  hard,  smooth,  and  glossy  (or  polished). 
Ch.  They  are  of  a  dark  brown  color. 
T.  Describe  their  position. 
Ch.  They  are  just  back  of  the  antennae. 
T.  Describe  their  position  more  carefully. 
Ch.  They  are  at  the  top  of  the  front  part  of  the  head,  one  at  each 

side.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Why  are  they  placed  there?     (Children  cannot  think.) 
T.  In  how  many  directions  can  it  see  ? 
Ch.  It  can  see  in  front,  behind,  and  on  each  side,  all  at  the  same  time. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Then  why  are  the  eyes  placed  as  they  are  ? 


146  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

Ch.  They  are  placed  there  that  the  grasshopper  may  be  able  to  see 
danger  on  all  sides  at  the  same  time.    (Class  decision.   T.  confirm.) 

T.  These  are  compound  eyes.  They  are  made  of  many  thousands  of 
very  small  eyes  called  facets,  which  are  fastened  together  in  very 
much  the  same  manner  as  the  cells  in  a  honeycomb.  (T.  illustrates 
by  a  drawing  of  small,  hexagonal  cells,  joined  together.  These 
cells  must  be  made  as  small  as  possible.) 

T.  Now  look  carefully  at  the  part  of  the  head  near  the  eyes,  and  try 
to  find  something  else. 

Ch.  I  see  something  very  small,  just  between  the  eyes  and  the  anten- 
nae, that  looks  like  an  eye. 

T.  How  many  see  the  same  ? 

Ch.  I  think  there  are  three,  near  together. 

T.  There  are  three  very  small  eyes  there,  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  find 
them  with  the  naked  eye.  They  are  called  ocelli.  (Simultaneous 
recitation.     T.  write  on  board  word  ocelli.) 

Note.  —  Pupils  have  actually  f oimd  the  ocelli  and  called  them  eyes, 
but  it  is  not  usual  for  children  to  make  such  close  observation  as  this 
discovery  requires.  K  they  do  not  find  them,  the  teacher  may  tell 
them  they  are  there. 

T.  Examine  the  head  again,  and  find  some  other  part. 

Ch.  We  have  not  examined  the  mouth  yet. 

T.  You  may  do  so,  each  making  a  statement. 

Ch.  I  can  not  describe  the  size  of  the  mouth,  except  that  it  seems 

about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  horizontally.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  make  another  statement  in  regard  to  the  mouth  ? 
Ch.  It  is  a  little  lighter  brown  than  the  rest  of  the  head. 
Ch.  It  seems  rough. 
T.  What  makes  it  rough? 
Ch.  Ever  so  many  little  parts  stick  out. 
T.  What  may  you  call  those  little  parts  ? 
Ch.  They  are  the  mouth  parts. 
T.  Without  counting,   how  many  mouth  parts  would  you  say  the 

grasshopper  has  ? 
Ch.  The  grasshopper  has  many  mouth  parts.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  Now  you  may  tell  me,  in  the  order  in  which  you  found  them,  all  the 

parts  attached  to  the  head  of  the  grasshopper. 
Ch.  Attached  to  the  head  of  the  grasshopper,  are  two  antennae,  two 

compound  eyes,  three  simple  eyes  (ocelli),  and  many  mouth  parts. 

(Simultaneous  recitation.) 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  I47 

Drill,  by  having  pupils  describe  head  and  parts,  and  giving  names. 
Then  write  on  the  board  questions  covering  the  work,  and  allow  the 
usual  time  for  writing  answers,  taking  care  that  the  work  be  very  neatly 
done. 

Questions. 

1.  Describe  the  head  of  the  grasshopper. 

2.  Describe  the  antennje. 

3.  Describe  the  compound  eyes. 

4.  Describe  the  ocelli. 

After  this,  have  the  pupils  draw  the  head,  placing  eyes,  antennse,  and 
mouth  parts  in  proper  position.  Be  careful  that  pens  and  pencils  are  in 
proper  condition,  and  that  the  work  is  neatly  done. 


148  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 


LESSON  III. 

Review  description  of  the  head  of  the  grasshopper,  as  well  as  parts  attached, 
having  pupils  give  reasons  for  position  of  parts,  and  their  uses. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Judgment, 
and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach.  Description,  Uses,  and  Names  of  mouth 
parts. 

MATTER. 

The  mouth  parts  of  the  grasshopper  are:  — 

1.  The  labrum  or  upper  lip. 

2.  The  mandibles,  a  j)air  of  large,  strong  jaws. 

3.  The  maxillce,  a  pair  of  Jaws  smaller  than  the  mandibles. 

4.  The  maxillary  palpi,  a  pair  of  jointed  feelers  attached  to  the  maxillce. 
6.  The  labium,  or  lotver  lip,  composed  of  two  small  jaws  fastened  together. 
6.  Labial  palpi,  a  pair  of  jointed  feelers  attached  to  the  labium. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  You  may  now  examine  the  mouth  parts  closely,  and  describe 
the  first  part  you  find. 

Child.  I  find  a  thin  skin  that  lies  on  a  hard  surface. 

T.  Observe  carefully  where  it  is  placed,  and  try  to  think  what  it  may 
be. 

Ch.  It  is  something  like  an  upper  lip. 

T.  How  many  have  found  it  ?     (All  have.) 

T.  It  is  the  upper  lip  of  tke  grasshopper,  and  it  is  called  the  labrum. 
(Simultaneous  recitation.     T.  write  on  board  word  labrum.) 

T.  Having  found  the  upper  lip,  what  would  you  naturally  look  for 
next? 

Ch.  I  should  look  for  the  lower  lip.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Who  can  find  it  first  ? 

Ch.  I  find  something  fastened  to  the  chin ;  that  may  be  it.  (Have 
pupils  find  same.) 

T.  (Examining.)  Yes,  that  is  it.  It  is  called  the  labium.  (Simulta- 
neous recitation.     T.  write  on  board  word  labium.') 

Note. — T.  may  show  that  the  labium  is  composed  of  two  small  jaws 
that  seem  to  have  grown  together. 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  149 

T.  What  parts  have  you  already  found  ? 

Ch.  We  have  found  the  labrum,  or  upper  lip,  and  the  labium,  or  lower 

lip,  which  is  made  up  of  two  small  jaws.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  Look  between  the  labrum  and  the  labium,  and  describe  what  you 

find. 
Ch.  I  find  two  hard  things,  one  on  each  side  of  the  mouth.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Where  are  they  in  regard  to  the  labrum  ? 
Ch.  They  are  close  to  the  labrum.     They  seem  to  be  just  below  the 

hard  surface  that  the  labrum  covers.  (Class  decision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  Those   are  called  the   mandibles.     (Simultaneous  recitation.     T. 

write  on  board  word  mandibles.^ 
T.  Who  can  think  what  they  are  for? 

Ch.  They  are  used  when  he  eats.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Then  what  will  you  call  them  ? 

Ch.  They  may  be  the  grasshopper's  jaws.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  describe  the  mandibles. 
Ch.  The  mandibles  are  a  pair  of  strong,  hard  jaws. 
T.  Look  again  at  the  mouth,  and  describe  what  you  find. 
Ch.  I  find  two  other  things  just  below  the  mandibles,  one  on  each  side. 
T.  What  do  you  think  they  are  ? 
Ch^  I  think  they  are  jaws,  too. 

T.  Compare  them  with  the  mandibles  in  regard  to  size  and  hardness. 
Ch.  They  are  softer  and  smaller  than  the  mandibles.    (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  They  are  called  the  maxillcE,  or  lower  jaws.      (Simultaneous  recita- 

tation.     T.  write  on  board  word  maxUlre.) 
T.  Now  you  may  name  the  mouth  parts  as  far  as  you  have  found 

them. 
Ch.  We  have  found  the  labrum,  or  upper  lip ;  the  mandibles,  a  pair 

of  large,  strong  jaws;  the  maxillae,  a'pair  of  smaller  jaws  than  the 

mandibles ;  and  the  labium,  or  lower  lip,  composed  of  two  small 

jaws  fastened  together. 
T.  I  should  like  you  to  find  another  difference  between  the  maxillae 

and  the  mandibles. 
Ch.  The  maxillae  have  little  hairs  fastened  to  them,  and  the  mandi- 
bles have  not.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  In  what  other  place  do  you  find  those  little  hairs  ? 
Ch.  There  are  two  on  the  labium.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Those  are  called  palpi.     (Explain  meaning  of  the  word.)     Now 

what  do  we  need  to  distinguish  the  palpi  on  the  maxillae  from 

those  on  the  labium  ? 


150  LESSONS   ON  INSECTS. 

Ch.  We  need  a  name  for  those  on  the  maxillae,  and  a  name  for  those 
on  the  labium"^     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  The  palpi  attaclied  to  the  maxillce  are  called  maxillary  palpi,  while 
those  attached  to  the  labium  are  called  the  labial  palpi.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.     T.  write  on  board  both  terms.) 

T.  Now  who  can  name  all  the  mouth  parts  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  placed,  describing  each  as  briefly  as  possible? 

Ch.  The  mouth  parts  of  the  grasshopper  are  :  — 

1.  The  labrum,  or  upper  lip. 

2.  The  mandibles,  a  pair  of  large,  strong  jaws. 

3.  The  maxillae,  a  pair  of  smaller  jaws  than  the  mandibles. 

4.  The  maxillary  palpi,  a  pair  of  jointed  feelers  attached  to  the 

maxillae. 

5.  The  labium,  or  lower  lip,  composed  of  two  small  jaws  fastened 

together. 

6.  The  labial  palpi,  a  pair  of  jointed  feelers  attached  to  the  labium. 

Note.  —  The  T.  will  write  the  above  sentences  on  the  board,  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  given  by  the  pupils,  taking  care  to  explain  the 
difficult  words,  and  having  them  use  the  technical  terms  after  they  have 
been  learned,  not  allowing  them  to  speak  of  the  palpi  as  the  feelers. 

T.  Now  who  can  make  a  description  of  the  mouth  ? 

Ch.  The  mouth  is  quite  small,  and  it  is  longer  than  it  is  wide. 

T.  Let  another  describe  the  mouth  in  some  other  respect. 

Ch.  It  is  rather  hard,  a  little  rough,  and  dark  brown  in  color. 

T.  TVliere  is  it  situated  ? 

Ch.  It  is  placed  just  at  the  lower  end  of  the  head. 

T.  Who  has  seen  the  gTasshopper  eat  ?     (Several  have.) 

T.  In  what  direction  does  it  move  its  jaws  when  eating? 

Ch.  It  moves  its  jaws  out  and  in. 

T.  In  what  direction  do  boys  and  girls  move  their  jaws  while  eating? 

Ch.  Boys  and  girls  move  their  jaws  up  and  down.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  word  may  we  use  that  would  sound  better  than  up  and  down, 

and  mean  the  same  ? 
Ch.  Boys  and  girls  move  their  jaws  vertically. 
T.  In  what  direction  does  the  grasshopper  move  its  jaws? 
Ch.  The  grasshopper  moves  its  jaws  horizontally.      (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  knows  what  the  gTasshopper  eats  ? 

Ch.  He  eats  grass,  grain,  and  leaves.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  let  us  consider  whether  those  mouth  parts  are  fitted  to  his 

needs.     What  is  the  use  of  the  palpi  ? 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  151 

Ch.  Since  they  are  feelers,  it  must  use  them  to  feel  its  food,  to  find 
whether  it  is  of  the  right  kind.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  "Well,  after  selecting  the  food  by  means  of  the  feelers,  what  part  do 
you  think  he  uses  next  ? 

Ch,  I  think  he  uses  the  mandibles  next,  to  cut  the  grass  into  little 
pieces. 

r.  Why  do  you  think  that? 

Ch.  Because  the  mandibles  are  very  strong,  and  the  grass  is  tough. 
(Class  decision.  T.  confirm,  showing  that  this  is  why  those  organs 
are  so  strong.) 

T.  What  does  he  do  after  cutting  the  grass  ? 

Ch.  I  suppose  he  chews  it. 

T.  How  does  he  chew  it  ?     (Ch.  may  not  know.) 

Ch.  Perhaps  he  uses  the  maxillae  for  chewing  his  food.  (Class  deci- 
sion.    T.  confirm.) 

T.  Now  we  have  to  consider  the  use  of  the  labrum  and  labium.  Of 
what  use  are  they?     (Children  do  not  know.) 

T.  Of  what  use  are  your  lips  ? 

Ch.  We  look  better  with  them. 

T.  Of  what  use  are  they  in  eating  ? 

Ch.  They  cover  the  food  and  keep  it  from  falling  out  of  the  mouth. 

T.  Now  who  can  think  of  what  use  the  labrum  and  labium  may  be  V 

Ch.  They  are  for  the  same  use  as  our  own;  to  keep  the  food  in  the 
mouth. 

T.  In  how  many  directions  can  the  grasshopper  move  the  labrum  and 
labium  ? 

Note.  —  If  the  children  cannot  tell  this,  the  teacher  had  better  not 
enlighten  them,  but  have  them  watch  the  grasshoppers  in  the  field,  and 
find  out. 

Drill  by  having  pupils  find  and  name  parts  quickly ;  and,  if  possible, 
by  having  them  draw  some  of  the  parts  rapidly  on  the  board.  Then  erase 
work  from  board,  remove  specimens,  and  have  different  children  give  a 
short  and  connected  description  of  the  mouth  parts,  after  which  assign 
the  usual  time  for  writing ;  and,  to  vary  the  exercise  a  little,  the  teacher 
need  not  write  questions  to  be  answered,  but  have  them  write  a  connected 
description  of  the  parts  studied.  After  writing,  the  usual  time  must  be 
spent  in  drawing. 

References  will  be  made  to  the  scrap-book,  from  time  to  time,  and  such 
items  of  prose  or  poetry  read  as  bear  upon  the  insect. 

Have  the  out-door  observations  reported  at  least  as  often  as  once  a 
week. 


152  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 


LESSON   IT. 


Review  Description,  Position,  Motions,  and  uses  of  Mouth  Parts  of  the 
grasshopper. 


OBJECT. 


To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Judgment, 
and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Description,  and  Parts  of  the  Thorax, 
together  with  the  Parts  attached. 

MATTER. 

1.  The  thorax  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  horizontally,  nearly  half  an  inch 
vertically,  and  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  from  side  to 
side. 

2.  Its  shape  is  something  like  a  tube  somewhat  flattened. 

3.  The  surface  is  smooth,  and  rather  soft. 

4.  The  color  is  light  brown,  ivith  dark  brown  spots  over  it. 

5.  The  parts  of  the  thorax  are  three  ringsy  called  the  prothorax,  the  meso- 
thorax,  and  the  metathorax. 

6.  The  parts  attached  to  the  thorax,  are  three  pairs  of  legs,  and  two  pairs 
of  wings. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  (After  examining  the  head.)  What  part  of  the  grasshopper 
do  you  think  we  may  study  ? 

Child.  The  thorax  comes  next  to  the  head,  perhaps  we  may  study  that. 

T.  In  order  to  know  the  size  of  the  thorax,  how  many  dimensions 
must  we  consider  ? 

Ch.  We  must  consider  the  length,  breadth,  and  thickness. 

T.  You  may  do  so,  carefully,  and  then  describe  the  thorax,  in  regard 
to  size- 

Ch.  The  thorax  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  half  an  inch  wide,  and  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick. 

T.  How  many  think  that  is  true? 

Ch.  I  do  not  know  which  direction  he  takes  for  length,  and  which  for 
width. 

T.  You  may  try  to  improve  upon  what  he  has  said  of  the  size  ? 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  153 

Cli.  The  thorax  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  horizontally,  nearly  half  an 

inch  wide,  vertically,  and  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  from 

side  to  side.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  You  may  next  describe  the  shape  of  the  thorax. 
Ch.  Its  shape  is  nearly  round. 
T.  What  objection  do  you  make  to  that? 
Ch.  It  is  curved,  but  not  round. 
T.  Who  can  think  of  something  he  has  seen,  that  this  resembles  in 

shape  ? 
Ch.  It  is  shaped  as  if  it  had  been  round,  and  then  flattened  out. 
T.  Let  some  one  else  try. 
Ch.  Its  shape  is  something  like  a  flattened  tube.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  You  may  next  describe  the  surface. 
Ch.  I  cannot  see  the  surface  of  the  thorax. 
T.  Why  not? 

Ch.  It  has  so  many  things  on  it. 
T.  You  may  all  remove  those  things  j  be  very  careful  that  you  do  not 

break  any  part,  and  put  them  aside  for  the  present. 
Ch.  I  can  see  the  surface  now ;  it  is  quite  smooth,  and  not  as  hard  as 

the  head. 
T.  Make  that  description  in  as  few  words  as  possible. 
Ch.  The  surface  Ls  smooth,  and  rather  soft. 
T.  Who  can  describe  the  thorax,  in  regard  to  another  point  ? 
Ch.  The  color  is  light  brown,  dotted  with  dark  brown  spots.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  You  may  now  speak  of  the  parts  of  the  thorax. 
Ch,  Shall  we  call  the  legs  and  wings,  parts  of  the  thorax  ? 
T.  Who  has  an  opinion  about  that  V 
Ch.  I  think  that  we  cannot  call  the  legs  and  wings  parts  of  the  thorax, 

because  they  do  not  really  help  to  make  up  the  thorax :  they  are 

fastened  to  the  thorax. 
T.  What  word  may  we  use,  that  will  mean  the  same  as  fastened  to  f 
Ch.  We  may  say  attached  to,  instead  of  fastened.     (Class  decision. 

T.  confinn.) 
T.  Very  well;    now  let  us  look  for  the  parts  which  make  up  the 

thorax. 
Ch.  I  think  there  are  three  parts. 
T.  What  shall  we  call  them,  thinking  of  their  shape  ? 
Ch.  They  are  not  exactly  round,  or  we  might  call  them  rings. 
T.  You  may  call  them  rings  or  segments.      (Explain  use  of  word 

^segment.) 
Tr.  Now,  we  need  names,  to  distinguish  these  segments  from  each  other. 


154  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

Ch.  We  might  call  them  the  first,  second,  and  third  ring*. 

T.  What  objection  do  you  make  to  that  ? 

Ch.  We  might  not  agree  which  is  the  first  ring ;  one  might  say  this 
one  near  the  head,  while  another  may  say  the  one  next  the  abdo- 
men. 

T.  That  difficulty  is  overcome  by  having  a  name  for  each  ring.  All 
find  the  ring  next  the  head.  That  is  called  the  prothoi^ax.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.  T.  write  on  board  word  prothorax.)  Now 
touch  the  ring  next  the  prothorax ;  that  is  the  mesothorax.  (Simul- 
taneous recitation.  T.  write  on  board  word  mesothorax.)  And 
the  last  ring  is  called  the  metathorax.  (Simultaneous  recitation. 
T.  write  on  board  word  metathorax.) 

Drill,  for  a  minute,  on  the  three  words. 

T.  Now,  you  may  state  what  jou  have  learned  about  the  parts  of  the 
thorax. 

Ch.  The  parts  of  the  thorax  are  three  rings,  the  prothorax,  the  meso- 
thorax, and  the  metathorax. 

Drill,  for  a  minute  or  two,  upon  the  relative  positions  of  these  rings. 

T.  Who  can  tell  me  how  these  rings  are  fastened  together  ?  (Children 
do  not  know.) 

T.  IIow  is  the  head  fastened  to  the  thorax  ? 

Ch.  It  is  fastened  by  a  joint.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  The  rings  of  the  thorax  are  fastened  (or  jointed)  together  in  the 
same  way. 

Ch.  They  seem  to  have  a  great  many  joints.  The  antennaj  are 
jointed,  the  palpi  are  jointed  to  the  jaws,  and  the  rings  of  the 
thorax  are  jointed. 

T.  You  will  find  still  more  joints  as  you  study  the  little  creatures  far- 
ther. Now,  you  may  tell  me  what  you  removed  from  the  thorax, 
when  you  wanted  to  look  at  the  surface. 

Ch.  I  moved  a  queer  little  thing  that  looked  like  a  collar. 

T.  Where  w^as  it  placed  ? 

Ch.  It  was  placed  over  the  upper  side  of  the  thorax,  and  covered  the 
seam  (or  joint)  that  fastens  the  head  to  the  thorax.  (Class  decis- 
ion.    T.  confirm.) 

T.  Tell  me  whether  it  covered  only  the  joint. 

Ch.  It  covered  more  than  the  joint;  it  came  down  over  the  place 
where  the  wings  are  attached. 

T.  Of  what  use  is  it  ? 

Ch.  It  keeps  the  place  neat,  and  it  is  a  protection. 

T.  What  quality  has  it,  that  makes  it  a  good  protection  ? 

Ch.  It  is  hard. 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  155 

T.  Thinking  of  its  use,  who  can  make  a  name  for  this  convenient  little 

article  ? 
Ch.  (Suggests,  cape,  collar,  shield.) 
T.  Shield  is  the  best  name,  and  you  may  call  it  so. 
T.  What,  beside  the  shield,  did  you  remove  from  the  thorax? 
Ch.  I  took  off  the  wings. 
T.  How  many  wings  did  you  remove  ? 
Ch.  We  removed  four  wings  (or  two  pairs),     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
J  T.  Where  are  those  wings,  in  regard  to  one  another  ? 
Ch.  (Examining  other  specimens.)     One  pair  is  over  the  other  pair. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Since  this  is  true,  how  may  you  distinguish  one  pair  from  the 

other? 
Ch.  We  may  call  them  the  upper  and  the  under  pairs. 
T.  Where  are  these  wings  fastened,  in  regard  to  the  thorax  ? 
Ch.  They  are  fastened  (or  jointed)  to  the  back  of  the  thorax. 
T.  Who  can  be  a  little  more  exact  ? 
Ch.  The  upper  pair  is  fastened  to  the  mesothorax,  and  the  under  pair 

to  the  metathorax.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What,  beside  the  wings  and  the  shield,  did  you  remove  from  the 

thorax  ? 
Ch.  We  removed  the  legs. 
T.  How  many  legs  has  the  grasshopper  ? 
Ch.  (Counting.)     The  grasshopper  has  six  legs. 
T.  Where  are  the  legs  placed,  in  regard  to  the  thorax? 
Ch.  They  are  arranged  on  the  under  side  of  the  thorax,  in  two  rows, 

three  in  each  row.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Tell,  in  another  way,  how  they  are  arranged  ? 
Ch.  They  are  arranged  in  pairs. 
T.  To  what  parts  of  the  thorax  are  they  attached  ? 
Ch.  The  pair  next  the  head  (the  first,  or  front  pair)  is  attached  to 

the  prothorax ;  the  second  pair  to  the  mesothorax ;  and  the  third 

pair  to  the  metathorax.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Drill  upon  positions  for  a  minute. 

T.  Make  a  statement  in  regard  to  the  parts  attached  to  the  thorax. 
Ch.  The  parts  attached  to  the  thorax  are  two  pairs  of  wings  and 
three  pairs  of  legs.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Drill  by  having  children  find  and  name  parts  of  thorax,  and  the  parts 
attached.  Have  them  decide  appearance  and  position  of  parts.  Give  the 
usual  time  to  writing  the  reproduction,  and  the  same  time  as  before  to 
drawing  the  parts  studied. 


156  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

Note. —  The  pupils  will  now  begin  to  ask  questions,  and  the  T.  will 
find  it  difficult  to  satisfy  aroused  curiosity.  While  he  should  study  both 
insects  and  books,  carefully,  and  come  to  the  lesson  full  of  the  subject, 
it  would  not  be  well  for  him  to  answer  the  questions  by  telling^  but  he 
should  put  the  children  in  the  way  of  finding  out  what  they  want  to 
know.  Refer  them  to  closer  observation.  Show  them  relations  between 
parts.  By  showing  them,  I  mean,  lead  them  to  see,  encourage  them  to 
talk,  and  refer  them  to  such  books  as  they  can  use  intelligently.  Consult 
the  scrap-books,  the  newspapers,  where  scientific  items  abound,  and 
require  reports  of  any  knowledge,  bearing  upon  the  study,  which  the 
pupils  may  have  gained.  Let  the  work  of  collecting  specimens  go  on 
vigorously. 


THE  GRASSHOPPER. 


157 


LESSON   V. 

Review  carefully  the  previous  lesson. 
OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,   Conception,  Comparison,   Reason,  Judgment^ 
and  Language. 
POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Description,  Position,  and  Uses  of  the 
upper  wings  of  the  grasshopper. 


Locust. 

a   Upper  wing.        b    Lower  or  under  wing. 
MATTER. 

1.    The  upper  toings  of  the  grasshopper  are  about  tico  inches  long,  and 
about  half  an  inch  wide. 

They  are  very  thin.      They  are  long,  fiat,  and  nearly  straight. 
The  surface  is  smooth  and  glossy. 
They  are  soft  in  some  places  and  hard  in  others. 

They  are  light  yelloivish  brown,  with  dark  broivn  spots  on  the  soft  j>arts. 
They  are  jointed  to  the  upper  sides  of  the  mesothorax. 
When  in  a  position  of  rest,  the  upper  edges  fold  over  each  other  so  as 
to  form  a  kind  of  triangle  along  the  back. 

The  uses  of  the  upper  wings  are  to  aid  in  fiirimt  nriif'frf  pnrni'rrr  the  un- 
der wings. 


8. 


kV*     #>t»    trrs-m  ^^ 


THl? 


158  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  In  examining  the  upper  wings  I  wish  you  to  be  very  careful 
that  nothing  may  escape  your  notice.     You  may  first  speak  of  the 
size. 
Child.  The  upper  wings  are  about  two  inches  long,  and  about  half  an 

inch  wide  at  the  widest  part.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  in  regard  to  size  have  you  omitted  to  mention  ? 
Ch.  We  have  omitted  to  mention  the  thickness ;  but  the  wings  are  so 

thin  that  we  cannot  judge  of  their  thickness.    (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.     Then  what  statement  w411  you  make  about  them  in  this  respect  ? 
Ch.  They  are  very  thin. 
T.  Describe  the  shape  of  the  upper  wings. 
Ch.  They  are  long,  flat,  and  nearly  straight. 
T.  Why  do  you  say  nearly  straight  ? 
Ch.  Because  they  are  not  quite  straight,  but  curve  a  little  at  the  end 

farthest  from  the  body.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  You  may  speak  of  the  surface  of  these  wings. 
Ch.  They  are  smooth  and  glossy. 
T.  Use  the  sense  of  touch,  and  state  what  you  observe. 
Ch.  They  are  soft  in  some  places  and  hard  in  others.    (Class  decision. 

T.  confirm.) 
T.  You  may  speak  of  the  color. 

Ch.  They  are  light  brown  with  dark  brown  spots.     (Ch.  objects.) 
T.  AVhat  objection  do  you  make  to  that  ? 
Ch.  They  are  more  like  yellow  than  brown. 
T.  Then  in  what  way  can  you  modify  what  has  been  said  about  the 

color? 
Ch.  They  are  yellowish  brown  with  dark  brown  spots. 
T.  Who  wishes  to  modify  that  still  further  ? 
Ch.  They  are  pale    (or  light)   yellowish  brown  with  dark   brown 

spots. 
T.  Now  I  wish  you  to  state  anything  that  has  not  been  mentioned 

about  the  upper  wings. 
Ch.  At  the  upper  end,  where  the  wings  join  the  thorax,  they  seem  to 

be  gathered  together  a  little.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  WTio  can  see  any  reason  for  that  arrangement  ? 
Ch.  It  makes  the  place  at  the  joint  smaller,  and  the  ends  fit  more 

snugly  under  the  shield. 
T.  Mention  some  other  point. 
Ch.  The  wings  are  thicker  on  one  side  than  on  the  other.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  What  causes  that  thickening? 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  159 

Ch.  It  seems  to  be  caused  by  a  hard  ridge  near  the  outer  edge  of  the 

wing. 
T.  Who  can  describe  that  ridge  ? 

Ch.  It  seems  to  be  made  up  of  two  or  three  rows  of  a  bony  substance. 
T.  Who  can  describe  it  more  carefully  ? 
Ch.  It  is  rather  horny  than  bony,  and  the  ridge  is  made  up,  I  think, 

of  three  threads  that  are  near  together  near  the  upper  end,  and 

spread  apart  near  the  lower  end. 
T.  W^ho  else  can  describe  this  ridge  more  closely? 
Ch.  One  of  thpse  threads  runs  along  the  lower  edge,  and  when  they 

get  near  the  lower  end  of  the  wing,  they  all  grow  so  small  that  we 

cannot  feel  them.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Note.  —  T.  will  explain  that  these  are  veins,  and  will  explain  how  they 
admit  air  and  so  help  in  flying ;  also  show  how  the  blood  is  aerated.  If 
the  pupils  are  very  young,  no  mention  need  be  made  of  this,  but  T.  merely 
gives  name,  veins. 

T.  Mention  anything  else  that  you  observe. 

Ch,  The  wings  are  all  full  of  little  fine  hairs  or  threads. 

Note.  —  If  the  pupils  are  supplied  with  lenses,  they  may  examine  those 
small  veins  closely. 

T.  Those  are  small  veins  or  veinlets.     Now  hold  the  wings  between 

you  and  the  light,  and  tell  me  what  you  observe? 
Ch.  The  wings  are  clear. 
T.  What  do  you  mean  by  that  ? 
Ch.  I  can  see  through  them. 
T.  How  many  can  see  through  the  upper  wings? 
Ch.  W^e  can  see  light  through  them,  but  cannot  see  objects  very  well. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm,  and  give  word  semi-transparent.^ 
T.  Now,  you  may  mention  anything  else  that  you  observe. 
Ch.  The  dark  brown  spots  are  not  on  the  large  veins,  but  on  the 

veinlets.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Mention  anything  else  you  see. 
Ch.  The  upper  wings  are  longer  than  the  body  of  the  grasshopper. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  You  may  now  describe  their  position. 
Ch.  They  are  fastened  to  the  thorax. 
T.  To  what  part  of  the  thorax  are  they  attached  ? 
Ch.  They  are  attached  to  the  mesothorax. 
T.  WIio  can  be  more  particular  in  describing  their  position  ? 
Ch.  They  are  jointed  to  the  upper  side  of  the  mesothorax.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 


160  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

T.  In  how  many  ways  does  the  grasshopper  use  his  wings  ? 

Ch.  He  uses  them  in  two  ways.     He  spreads  them  out  when  he  flies, 

and  he  folds  them  straight  along  his  sides  when  he  rests.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm,  and  explain  meaning  of  word  Ortlioptera : 

orthos  =  straight,  pteron  =  a  wing.) 
T.  When  the  upper  wings  are  folded  how  are  they  arranged  in  regard 

to  each  other  ? 
Ch.  (Examining.)     They  fold  over  each  other. 
T.  I  should  like  you  to  be  very  careful  to  make  a  statement  that  will 

exactly  describe  the  arrangement. 
Ch.  AVhen  the  grasshopper  is  at  rest,  the  upper  edges  of  these  wings 

fold  over  each  other  and  make  a  kind  of  flat  place  on  the  back. 
T.  Of  what  shape  is  that  flat  place? 
Ch.  It  is  a  triangle.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now  make  a  full  statement  in  regard  to  the  folding  of  the  upper 

wings. 
Ch.  When  in  a  position  of  rest,  the  upper  edges  of  the  upper  wings 

fold  over  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  triangle  along  the  back. 
T.  You  may  now  consider  the  uses  of  the  upper  wings. 
Ch.  They  aid  in  flying.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  think  of  another  way  in  which  they  are  of  use  ? 
Ch.  They  cover  the  lower  wings  when  the  grasshopper  is  at  rest. 
T.  And  of  what  use  is  that  ? 
Ch.  They  protect  the  lower  wings. 
T.  Mention  one  quality  which  they  have  that  fits  them  to  protect  the 

lower  wings. 
Ch.  They  are  strong. 

T.  Mention  another  way  in  which  they  are  a  protection. 
Ch.  They  are  longer  than  the  lower  wings,  and  they  keep  their  whole 

length  and  width,  and  so  cover  the  lower  wings  completely. 
T.  Think  of  another  way  in  which  they  are  fitted  as  a  protection  for 

the  whole  body.     (Children  cannot  think.) 
T.  You  have  seen  one  flying,  and  tried  to  catch  it;  when  it  lighted  on 

the  ground  you  could  not  find  it,  and  in  a  moment  it  flew  from  your 

very  feet.     Why  could  you  not  find  it  when  it  was  so  near  you? 
Ch.  I  could  not  tell  it  from  the  ground. 
T.  Why  not? 

Ch.  Because  it  looked  like  the  ground. 
T.  What  of  it  looked  like  the  ground? 
Ch.  Its  color  was  like  the  color  of  the  ground.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  How  many  of  you  have  seen  grasshoppers  that  were  not  the  color  of 

the  ground  ?     (Children  have  probably  seen  green  grasshoppers.) 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  161 

T.  Where  did  those  green  grasshoppers  live  ? 

Ch,  They  lived  on  trees  or  in  green  grass. 

T.  Now  think  why  the  green  grasshoppers  live  among  green  leaves 
while  the  brown  ones  stay  near  the  brown  earth  ? 

Ch.  They  do  that  so  that  other  animals  cannot  catch  them.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Then  of  what  use  is  the  color  ? 

Ch.  It  is  a  protection. 

T,  Yes.  When  we  see  an  animal  that  has  the  same  color  as  the  objects 
around  it,  we  say  that  it  has  protective  color.  Perhaps  you  can 
think  of  some  animals  that  have  protective  color.  (Children  men- 
tion butterflies.  T.  leads  them  to  think  of  many  other  creatures, 
and  leads  them  to  understand  that  domestic  animals  do  not  need 
this  protection ;  consequently  do  not  have  it.  Tells  them  that  it  is 
one  of  Nature's  ways  of  preserving  her  creatures ;  and  leads  them  to 
understand  something  of  God's  care  over  the  least  of  his  creatures.) 

Drill  by  having  pupils  describe  the  upper  wings,  mentioning  position 
and  uses. 

Assign  the  usual  time  for  reproduction,  and  the  usual  time  for  draw- 
ing the  upper  wings. 


162  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

LESSON  TI. 

Review  previous  lesson  carefully. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception^  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Judgment, 
and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Description,  Position,  and  Use^  of  the 
under  wings  of  the  grasshopper. 

MATTER. 

1.  The  under  loings  are  about  tioo  inches  long  at  the  outer  side,  and  one 
inch  along  the  inner  side. 

2.  When  spread  out,  they  are  about  two  inches  broad  at  the  widest  part. 

3.  T^hey  are  very  thin. 

4.  They  are  shaped  something  like  a  fan. 

5.  They  are  smooth  and  glossy. 

6.  They  are  of  a^ pale  yellow  color. 

7.  They  are  attached  to  the  upper  side  of  the  metathorax. 

8.  They  are  used  in  flying. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  You  may  first  speak  of  the  size  of  the  under  wings.  As  soon 
as  a  pupil  gives  his  opinion  in  regard  to  lengih,  in  any  direction, 
you  may  measure. 

Note.  —  Pupils  should  be  provided  with  rulers  one  foot  long,  upon 
which  they  have  marked  inches.  They  will  need  to  use  them  continu- 
ally in  their  work. 

Child.  The  under  wings  are  about  two  inches  long. 

T.  Who  objects  to  that  statement  ? 

Ch.  T  think  it  is  not  exactly  true.  The  wings  are  about  two  inches 
long  at  the  outer  side,  but  the  inner  side  is  only  about  one  inch  in 
length.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  may  speak  of  the  width. 

Ch.  We  can  hardly  tell  how  wide  they  are,  they  are  so  doubled  up. 

Ch.  They  are  about  two  inches  broad  at  the  widest  part.  (Class  de- 
cision.    T.  confirm.) 

T.  Where  is  the  widest  part  ? 

Ch.  It  is  near  the  outer  end.  At  the  end  where  the  wings  join  the 
body,  it  is  quite  narrow,  not  half  an  inch  wide.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  Ig3 

T.  What  other  dimension  will  you  mention,  in  connection  with  size  ? 

Ch.  We  shall  mention  thickness. 

Ch.  We  cannot  give  the  thickness  by  measurement. 

T.  Then,  what  statement  will  you  make  ? 

Ch,  They  are  very  thin. 

T.  Speak  of  the  form  (shape). 

Ch.  The  wing  is  shaped  something  like  a  fan. 

T.  What  difference  do  you  observe  ? 

Ch.  It  is  not  shaped  so  much  like  a  fan,  but  it  folds  as  a  fan  does. 

T.  What  difference  do  you  observe  between  the  shape  of  the  wing  and 

that  of  a  fan  ? 
Ch.  The  wing  is  longer  at  one  side  than  at  the  other,  while  the  two 

sides  of  the  fan  are  of  the  same  length. 
T.  Mention  something  else  in  connection  with  the  form. 
Ch.  The  wings  are  curved  at  the  outer  end,  and  the  end  which  joins 

the  thorax  is  drawn  together.     It  is  somewhat  triangular. 
T.  Speak  of  the  surface. 
Ch.  The  sm-face  is  smooth  and  glossy. 
T.  Speak  of  some  other  point. 

Ch.  The  wings  are  of  a  pale  yellow  color.  (Class  decision.   T.  confirm.) 
T.  Now,  I  should  like  each  one  to  mention  whatever  he  observes. 
Ch.  The  wings  are  nearly  transparent. 
Ch.  They  have  veins,  as  the  upper  wings  have. 
T.  Compare  these  veins  with  those  of  the  upper  wings. 
Ch.  They  are  not  so  large,  nor  so  hard.    (Class  decision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  do  the  large  veins  compare,  in  number,  with  those  in  the 

outer  wings  ? 
Ch.  There  are  just  as  many  in  the  under  wings  as  in  the  upper.  (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Note.  —  It  would  be  well  (with  a  view  to  future  work)  for  the  teacher 
to  pay  particular  attention  to  the  number  of  large  veins  in  the  wings 
(especially  in  the  outer  pair)  of  every  insect  studied.  The  typical  num- 
ber is  five,  and  in  different  species  the  number  varies.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  give  young  pupils  the  names,  costal,  subcostal,  median,  submedian, 
and  internal  veins. 

T.  What  else  do  you  observe  in  connection  with  the  large  veins  ? 

Ch.  They  all  run  the  way  of  the  greatest  length  of  the  wings.  (T. 
gives  the  word  longitudinal,  and  may  again  explain,  that,  like  the 
veins  of  the  upper  wings,  these  veins  are  really  double,  having  an 
air  tube  inside  the  tube  through  which  the  blood  passes.) 

T.  Mention  anything  else  you  observe. 


164  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

Ch.  The  small  veins  lie  between  the  large  veins,  and  seem  to  run  in 

every  direction.     (T.  give  term  net-veined.') 
T.  What  else  do  you  observe  ? 
Ch.  The  folds  of  the  under  wings  are  longitudinal. 
T.  You  may  describe  the  position  of  the  under  wings. 
Ch.  They  are  attached  to  the  upper  side  of  the  metathorax.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Of  what  use  are  these  wings  ? 
Ch.  They  are  used  in  flying. 

T.  Who  has  another  statement  to  make  in  regard  to  these  wings  ? 
Ch.  They  are  like  a  soft  veil.     (T.  may  give  term  gossamer.) 
T.  Why  do  you  say  they  are  like  a  gossamer  veil? 
Ch.  Because  they  are  so  fine,  and  smooth,  and  soft. 
T.  Since  they  are  so  fine,  and  smooth,  and  soft,  how  may  we  say  they 

are  made  ? 
Ch.  They  are  very  delicately  made. 
T.  Of  what  advantage  is  this  fine,  delicate  texture  ?     (If  children  do 

not  understand  the  word  texture,  the  teacher  will  explain.) 
Ch.  They  are  very  pretty. 
Ch.  They  fold  up  nicely. 

Ch.  They  take  up  very  little  space  when  folded,  and  are  easily  covered. 
Ch.  They  have  very  little  weight  when  the  grasshopper  flies. 
T.  When  does  the  grasshopper  fold  them? 
Ch.  When  it  stops  to  feed. 

T.  What  advantage  is  there  in  folding  them  so  ? 
Ch.  They  have  not  protective  color,  and  so  are  better  out  of  sight  when 

the  grasshopper  is  at  rest. 

Note.  —  T.  may  show  children  other  grasshoppers  and  locusts  that 
have  the  under  wings  brightly  colored,  and  lead  them  to  understand  the 
reason  for  bright  colors  in  nature. 

Review  work  upon  both  upper  and  under  wings.  If  pupils  are  old 
enough,  lead  them  to  see  that  the  wings  are  expansions  of  the  outer  crust 
spread  over  the  horn-like  framework  of  veins. 

Spend  the  usual  time  upon  the  written  reproduction,  and  the  usual 
time  upon  the  drawing. 


Review  previous  work 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  165 

LESSON  VII. 


OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception^  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Judgmenty 
and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  teach  Number,  Description,  Position,  and  Uses  of  the  legs. 

MATTER. 

1.  Attached  to  the  thorax  are  three  pairs  of  legs. 

2.  The  front  legs  (frst  pair)  are  attached  to  the  prothorax. 

3.  The  middle  legs  {second  pair)  are  attached  to  the  mesothorax. 

4.  The  hind  legs  (third  pair)  are  attached  to  the  metathorax. 

5.  The  legs  are  of  different  sizes.  The  front  legs  are  very  slender  ;  the 
middle  legs  are  longer  and  thicker  than  the  front  legs;  and  the  hind 
legs  are  very  much  larger  in  every  loay  than  either  of  the  other  pairs. 

6.  The  surface  is  smooth  and  somewhat  glossy. 

7.  The  colors  are  light  and  dark  brown,  with  little  stripes  of  white  on  the 
hind  legs. 

8.  The  grasshopper  uses  the  front  legs  as  we  do  our  hands,  for  grasping 
and  holding  things. 

9.  The  middle  legs  seem  to  be  used  when  the  grasshopper  is  at  rest. 
10.   The  hind  legs  are  used  for  hopping  or  jumping. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  You  may  describe  the  legs  of  the  grasshoppers  you  have  in 
your  hands,  mentioning  first  anything  you  observe  in  regard  to 
number  and  position. 

Child.  This  grasshopper  has  six  legs.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  How  are  they  arranged  ? 

Ch.  They  are  arranged  in  pairs. 

T.  Then  how  many  legs  may  you  say  it  has  ? 

Ch.  It  has  three  pairs  of  legs. 

T.  Where  are  the  legs  ? 

Ch.  They  are  attached  to  the  thorax. 

T.  Observe  very  carefully  and  find  to  what  part  of  the  thorax  they 
are  attached. 

Ch.  The  two  front  legs  are  attached  to  the  prothorax. 

Ch.  The  two  legs  next  to  the  two  front  legs  are  attached  to  the  meso- 
thorax. 


166 


LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 


Ch.  The  hind  legs  are  attached  to  the  metathorax. 

T.  ^lention  anything  else  that  you  observe. 

Ch.  The  hind  legs  are  very  large. 

T.  Compare  their  size  with  that  of  the  other  legs. 

Ch.  The  legs  are  of  different  sizes. 

T.  Speak  of  each  pair,  beginning  with  the  smallest. 

Ch.  The  two  front  legs  are  very  slender. 

Ch.  The  two  middle  legs  are  longer  and  thicker  than  the  front  legs. 

Ch.  The  hind  legs  are  larger  in  every  way  than  either  of  the  other  pairs. 

T.  Speak  of  any  other  point. 

Ch.  They  are  smooth  and  glossy. 

T.  What  objection  do  you  make  to  that? 

Ch.  I  think  we  cannot  say  they  are  smooth.     I  find  on  the  lower  part 

of  the  legs  little  sharp  prickles  on  the  surface. 
T.  Who  else  has  observed  those  little  prickles  ? 
Ch.  They  are  not  all  over  the  surface  of  the  lower  part  of  the  legs. 

There  are  two  rows  of  what  seem  to  be  little  teeth  on  the  outside 

of  the  leg. 
T.  Upon  which  legs  are  those  teeth  the  largest? 

Ch.  They  are  largest  on  the  hind  legs.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  has  another  remark  to  make  about  those  teeth  ? 
Ch.  I  think  they  are  on  the  outside  of  the  lower  part  of  the  hind  legs 

only.     They  seem  to  be  along  the  inside  of  the  other  legs.     (Class 

decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  has  observed  any  other  point  ? 
Ch.  I  notice  that  the  colors  on  the  outside  of  the  first  four  legs  are 

nearly  the  same  as  those  on  the  other  parts.     On  the  inside  the 

colors  are  lighter.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  You  may  speak  of  the  colors  on  the  hind  legs. 
Ch.  On  the  large  parts  of  the  hind  legs  the  colors  are  arranged  on  the 

outside  in  little  slanting  rows  that  meet  in  the  middle,  and  the 

light  brown  seems  to  have  faded  to  white.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  Speak  of  anything  else  you  observe. 
Ch.  Each  leg  has  three  joints. 
T.  Describe  the  joints. 
Ch.  The  first  joint  is  where  the  leg  is  fastened  to  the  body ;  the  second 

is  where  the  upper  part  joins  the  lower  part  —  it  is  like  a  knee-joint ; 

and  the  third  is  where  the  lower  part  of  the  leg  joins  the  foot. 

Note.  —  Unless  the  pupils  are  somewhat  advanced  it  would  perhaps 
not  be  well  to  burden  them  at  present  with  the  names  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  leg.  The  name  tarsus  may,  however,  be  given  to  the  part  they 
call  the  foot. 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  167 

T.  I  wish  you  to  examine  the  part  you  call  the  foot,  and  state  what 
you  observe. 

CTi.  The  foot  (tarsus)  is  made  up  of  jointed  pieces  too.  (Class  deci- 
sion.    T.  confirm.) 

T.  How  many  joints  do  you  find  in  the  tarsus  ? 

Ch.  The  tarsus  has  four  joints.     (T.  give  plural  of  tarsus,  tarsi.) 

Note.  —  It  is  not  at  all  probable  that  a  whole  class  will  at  the  same 
time  have  specimens  with  four-jointed  tarsi,  as  they  will  not  be  able  to 
distinguish  between  the  grasshopper  and  the  locust,  and  will  doubtless 
have  many  of  the  latter,  which  have  three-jointed  tarsi. 

T.  You  may  mention  an3rthing  else  you  observe  about  the  tarsi. 

Ch.  The  tarsi  seem  to  have  little  teeth  fastened  to  them  as  the  legs 

have. 
T.  Who  can  think  of  the  use  of  those  little  teeth  ? 
Ch.  They  are  to  grasp  and  hold  things  with.     (Class  decision.     T. 

confirm.) 
T.  Now  you  may  continue  your  observation  of  the  legs. 
Ch.'  The  front  legs  point  forward.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  has  observed  the  way  in  which  the  grasshopper  uses  the  front 

legs? 
Ch.  It  uses  them  to  hold  its  food  and  to  catch  hold  of  things. 
T.  Who  can  think  what  part  of  the  body  boys  and  girls  use  for  that 

purpose  ? 
Ch.  Boys  and  girls  use  their  hands  for  that  purpose. 
T.  Then  what  can  you  say  of  the  way  in  which  the  grasshopper  uses 

the  front  legs  ? 
Ch.  The  grasshopper  uses  the  front  legs  as  we  do  our  hands. 
T.  Of  what  use  are  the  two  middle  legs  ? 
Ch.  They  help  him  to  hold  on  to  things  steadUy  when  he  is  resting. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  You  may  now  speak  of  the  uses  of  the  third  pair  of  legs. 
Ch.  I  think  the  grasshopper  uses  them  in  jumping  or  hopping. 
T.  "Why  do  you  think  he  uses  them  more  than  the  others  ? 
Ch.  Because  they  are  so  large  and  strong.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.) 

Drill  by  having  pupils  recall  description,  position,  and  uses  of  the  legs, 
then  give  the  usual  time  to  reproduction  and  drawing  of  the  parts  studied. 


168 


LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 


LESSON    VIII, 


Review  previous  work. 


OBJECT. 

To  cultivate  Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,  Judgment,  and 
Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Description,  Position,  and  Uses  of  the 
abdomen. 


MATTER. 

1.  The  abdomen  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length  (horizontally),  it 
measures  half  an  inch  (vertically')  at  the  largest  part,  and  about  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness  (from  side  to  side). 

2.  It  is  shaped  something  like  a  flattened  (compressed)  tube. 

3.  It  is  larger  near  the  thorax  than  at  the  other  end. 

4.  It  is  smooth,  shiny,  and  rather  soft  (to  the  touch). 

5.  It  has  a  sharp  ridge  along  the  back,  and  two  ridges  on  the  under  side. 

6.  Its  color  along  the  back  is  dark  brown. 

7.  The  sides  are  light  brown,  with  dark  brown  dots  arranged  vertically. 

8.  The  under  side  is  striped  with  yellow  and  brown. 

9.  The  abdomen  is  composed  of  eight  rings  (segments). 

10.  The  organs  of  hearing  are  placed  on  the  ring  of  the  abdomen  nearest 
the  thorax. 

11.  The  spiracles  are  placed  on  the  rings  of  the  abdomen,  one  on  each  side 
of  each  ring. 

12.  The  ovipositor  is  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen. 


METHOD. 

Teacher.  You  may  now  begin  to 
describe  the  abdomen  of  the  grass- 
hopper, taking  care  to  keep  the  usua^ 
order. 

Child.  The  abdomen  is  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  long. 

T.  What  objection  do  you  make 
to  that  statement  ?     (Ch.  objects.) 

Ch.  I  think  he  had  better  state 
the  direction  in  which  he  measured. 

T.  He  may  do  so. 

Ch.  It  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half 


IV.  Grasshopper,  with  Parts 

REMOVED. 

a  a  Spiracles  on  Beg-      g  Shield, 
ments.  h  Foreleg. 

h  Tympanum.  i  Compound  eye. 

c  Wing  attachments,  o  Antenna. 
def  Parts  of  thorax. 


in  length,  horizontally.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  169 

Ch.  Its  greatest  vertical  measurement  is  about  half  an  inch. 

Ch.  It  is  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  from  side  to  side. 

T,  Who  is  ready  to  make  the  next  statement  ? 

Ch.  I  cannot  tell  the  shape ;  it  is  not  quite  round. 

T.  Who  can  describe  the  form  of  the  abdomen  ? 

Ch.  It  is  something  like  a  tube  that  has  been  flattened.     (T.  leads 

Ch.  to  state  that  the  abdomen  is  compressed.) 
T.  Mention  anythmg  else  you  observe. 
Ch.  The  abdomen  is  larger  at  the  part  near  the  thorax  than  at  the  other 

end. 
T.  What  else  do  you  observe  ? 
Ch.  The  surface  is  smooth  and  shiny. 
Ch.  It  is  quite  soft  to  the  touch. 
Ch.  It  has  a  sharp  ridge  along  the  back. 
Ch.  There  are  two  ridges  on  the  under  side. 

T.  You  may  speak  of  the  color,  and  be  very  careful  to  omit  nothing. 
Ch.  It  is  dark  brown  along  the  back. 

Ch.  The  sides  are  light  brown,  with  small,  dark  brown  dots  on  them. 
Ch.  The  under  side  is  yellow  and  brown. 
T.  How  are  those  colors  arranged  on  the  under  side  ? 
Ch.  They  are  arranged  in  stripes.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  How  is  the  abdomen  made  ? 

Ch.  It  is  made  up  (composed)  of  rings.    (Class  decision.    T.  confirm.) 
T.  Of  how  many  rings  is  the  abdomen  composed? 
Ch.  It  is  composed  of  eight  rings.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Note.  —  The  T.  may  find  the  abdomen  (in  some  specimens)  composed 
of  nine  rings,  and  will  be  careful,  here,  that  the  children  do  not  gain 
wrong  impressions. 

T.  Now,  I  wish  you  to  describe,  carefully,  everything  you  observe 

about  the  rings,  each  child  mentioning  one  thing. 
Ch.  The  rings  are  of  different  sizes.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  W^ho  can  describe  them,  in  regard  to  this  difference  in  size  ? 
Ch.  Each  ring  seems  smaller  than  the  one  before  it,  so  that  one  fits  over 

the  edge  of  another. 
Ch.  The  largest  ring  of  the  abdomen  is  the  one  which  is  joined  to  the 

thorax. 
Ch.  The  smallest  one  is  out  near  the  end. 
T.  Of  what  advantage  is  it  for  the  rings  to  pass  each  over  the  edge  of 

the  other? 
Ch.  (May  not  know.     If  not,  T.  explain). 
T.  It  enables  the  grasshopper  to  move  the  abdomen  in  any  way.     (T. 


170  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

may  here  compare  the  motions  of  insects  with  those  of  animals 
differently  constructed.) 

T.  We  are  ready,  now,  for  further  observations. 

Ch.  The  dark  brown  spots  are  on  the  outer  edge  of  each  ring,  just 
where  it  covers  the  one  coming  after  it. 

T.  The  ring  which  joins  the  thorax  has  none  of  these  dots.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Ch.  The  five  rings  nearest  to  that  one  have  each  ten  dots,  and  the 
rest  of  the  rings  have  only  eight.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Ch.  The  ring  that  joins  the  thorax  has  two  queer  things  on  it. 

T.  You  may  describe  them. 

Ch.  They  are  two  little  round  holes,  one  on  each  side.  (Class  decis- 
ion.    T.  confirm.) 

T.  (Giving  fresh  specimens.)  Examine  these  closely,  and  tell  me 
whether  you  find  those  holes. 

Ch.  Yes,  they  are  here,  but  they  are  covered  over  with  a  thin  skin. 
(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  These  are  the  organs  of  hearing,  and  that  thin  skin  has  the  same 
effect  as  the  parchment  stretched  over  a  drum.  This  organ  has 
the  same  name  as  that  given  to  the  drum  of  the  human  ear,  —  the 
tympanum.  (Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write  on  board  word 
tympanum,  explain  signification,  and  give  plural.) 

T.  You  may  mention  anything  else  you  observe. 

Ch.  The  rings  on  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen  do  not  fit,  exactly, 
with  those  on  the  upper  side. 

T.  You  may  state  more  fully  what  you  observe  in  regard  to  them. 

Ch.  They  are  smaller  on  the  under  side. 

T.  What  is  the  result  of  this  difference  in  size  ? 

Ch.  Along  the  edges,  where  the  upper  rings  meet  the  lower,  there  are 
two  ridges  extending  horizontally. 

T.  Very  well,  what  else  do  you  observe  in  connection  with  the  ridges  ? 

Ch.  On  the  edge  of  each  ridge  there  are  little  dots.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  may  tell  me  anything  you  observe  about  these  dots. 

Ch.  They  are  very  small,  not  larger  than  the  point  of  a  pin. 

T.  How  many  dots  are  there  ? 

Ch.  There  are  two  dots  on  each  ring,  one  on  each  side.  (Class  decis- 
ion.    T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  may  examine  them  under  the  glasses. 

Ch.  They  seem  to  be  little  holes  in  the  covering  of  the  body.  (Class 
decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  These  little  holes  are  called  spiracles.  You  may  describe  their 
position  carefully. 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  171 

Ch.  The  spiracles  are  placed  on  rings  of  the  abdomen,  one  on  each  side. 

T.  These  spiracles  are  openings  into  a  set  of  little  tubes,  as  fine  as  the 
finest  hairs,  running  all  through  the  body  of  the  grasshopper.  These 
air-tubes  are  called  tracheoe.  (Simultaneous  recitation.  T.  write 
on  board  word  trachece,  and  explain  singular  form.) 

T.  Who  can  think  of  the  use  the  trachea?  are  to  the  grasshopper  ? 

Ch.  I  should  think  the  air  would  go  into  the  body.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 

T.  Of  what  advantage  is  it  to  the  grasshopper  to  have  the  air  in  its 
body  in  that  way  ? 

Ch.  I  suppose  he  needs  the  air  to  breathe. 

T.  How  often  are  the  spiracles  open  ? 

Ch.  They  are  always  open.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

7\  Then,  what  kind  of  air  has  the  grasshopper  always  in  the  body? 

Ch.  He  has  fresh  air^ 

T.  What  does  the  fresh  air  do  for  him  ? 

Ch.  It  makes  him  strong. 

T.  AVho  can  think  of  something  else  the  air  does  for  the  grasshopper  ? 

Ch.  It  makes  him  light,  so  that  he  can  fly  easily.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 

Note. — If  the  pupils  cannot  think  of  this,  the  teacher  will  explain,  and 
refer  to  the  birds  as  an  illustration,  showing  that  the  bones  are  hollow,  etc. 

T.  (Showing  a  living  grasshopper  under  a  glass.)  What  do  you  ob- 
serve, in  regard  to  the  movement  of  this  grasshopper  ? 

Ch.  The  abdomen  is  moving. 

T.  Explain  the  movement  as  fully  as  possible. 

Ch.  The  grasshopper  seems  to  draw  in  the  abdomen,  and  then  to 
spread  it  out. 

T.  What  is  he  doing? 

Ch.  He  is  taking  in  air.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  You  may  mention  anything  else  that  you  observe,  in  connection 
with  the  abdomen. 

Ch.  I  find  something  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen  that  I  cannot  describe. 

T.  Who  can  describe  it? 

Ch.  The  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  abdomen  seem  to  have  sepa- 
rated for  a  short  distance,  and  each  side  has  grown  into  two  little 
hooks.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Touch  those  little  hooks,  and  state  what  you  observe? 

Ch.  They  are  hard,  and  have  quite  sharp  points.  (Class  decision.  T. 
confirm,  explaining  the  ovipositor,  and  the  use  that  is  made  of  the 
little  hooks  in  digging  holes  in  the  ground  in  which  to  deposit  eggs.) 

The  usual  time  will  be  given  to  writing  the  reproduction,  and  to  draw- 
ing the  abdomen,  showing  segments  (rings),  ridges,  and  spiracles. 


172  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 


LESSON    IX. 

Review  carefully  previous  work  upon  the  grasshopper,  from  the  begin- 
ning. Two  or  three  of  the  regular  recitations  may  be  taken  for  this 
review.  The  time  for  written  reproduction  may  be  occupied  in  the  stu- 
dents preparing  carefully-written  papers  upon  what  they  have  studied ; 
while  the  time  for  drawing  each  day  should  be  spent  in  making  well- 
finished  drawings  of  different  kinds  of  grasshoppers. 

OBJECT. 

To  cultivate   Perception,  Conception,  Comparison,  Reason,   Judgment, 
and  Language. 

POINT. 

To  develop  idea  of,  and  teach,  Kinds,  Localities,  Habits,  and  Uses  of 
grasshoppers. 

Note.  — In  this  lesson  I  shall  omit  the  usual  arrangement  of  matter  at 
the  beginning,  as  it  will  appear  in  the  summary  of  the  study  of  the  grass- 
hopper. The  T.  will,  however,  in  preparing  this  part  be  very  careful  to 
have  the  usual  arrangement  of  matter,  as  this  is  the  most  interesting  part 
of  the  work. 

METHOD. 

Teacher.  Since  we  began  this  work,  how  many  kinds  of  grasshoppers 

have  we  exammed  ? 
Child.  We  have  examined  one  kind.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  Who  can  tell  whether  there  are  other  kinds  ? 
Ch.  There  are  other  kinds,  for  we  have  caught  them. 
T.  You  may  tell  what  you  know  about  the  other  kinds. 
Ch.  The  grasshoppers  that  live  on  trees  are  different  from  those  we 

have  studied. 
T.  Mention  the  differences. 
Ch.  They  are  green  in  color. 
T.  ^Vhyisthat? 
Ch.  That  is  their  protection.     They  are  the  same  color  as  the  leaves. 

(Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 
T.  In  what  other  way  do  they  differ  ? 

Ch.  The  grasshoppers  that  live  on  trees  are  larger  than  the  others. 
T.  Mention  any  other  difference. 
Ch.  The  green  grasshoppers  have  more  slender  antennae  than  the  field 

grasshopper.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  173 

Note.  —  The  pupils  may  here  confuse  the  locust  with  the  grasshopper, 
and  it  will  be  well  for  the  T.  to  have  both  insects,  and  have  the  children 
observe  differences  and  learn  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  The 
marked  differences  will  be  found  to  exist  in  the  length  of  antennae,  the 
position  of  wings  when  at  rest,  the  number  of  joints  in  the  tarsi,  the  man- 
ner of  flight,  the  habit  of  migration,  etc. 

T.  Who  can  tell  where  grasshoppers  are  found  ? 
Ch.  We  read  of  them  in  the  Bible. 
T.  That  proves  that  they  were  found  long  ago,  where  ? 
Ch.  In  Asia. 

Note.  —  The  T.  may  tell  the  pupils  the  different  countries  where  these 
little  creatures  are  known,  and  may  read  to  them  of  the  ravages  of  the 
locust  in  many  different  countries.  He  may  tell  them  of  the  time  of 
the  coal-forests  where  grasshoppers  and  cockroaches  abounded  before  the 
earth  was  fitted  for  the  habitation  of  the  higher  animals.  The  pupils  will 
probably  be  familiar  with  the  accounts  of  the  destruction  caused  by  these 
insects  in  the  West;  and  the  teacher  may  introduce  the  talk  upon  locality 
by  referring  to  them. 

T.  We  shall  now  speak  of  the  habits  of  the  grasshopper.  Each  one 
may  think  of  the  things  he  has  seen  the  grasshopper  do,  and  let  us 
see  who  has  been  the  most  careful  observer. 

Ch.  The  grasshopper  jumps  (hops). 

T.  AVliy  does  he  not  walk  when  he  wishes  to  go  from  place  to  place  ? 

Ch.  His  legs  are  so  uneven  he  cannot.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  Very  well.     Now  we  are  ready  for  another  habit. 

Ch.  The  grasshopper  sings.  (T.  will  have  Ch.  try  to  imitate  the 
noise,  —  zic,  zic,  zic,  —  and  then  lead  them  to  discover  that  this 
noise  is  made  by  drawing  the  back  part  of  one  of  the  hind  legs 
across  the  large  veins  of  the  outside  wing.  Also  tell  them  that  it 
is  the  male  grasshopper  that  makes  the  noise  to  call  its  mate.) 

T.  That  singing  noise  is  called  stridulation.  (Simultaneous  recitation. 
T.  write  on  board.) 

Ch.  When  the  grasshopper  stridulates  he  uses  only  one  leg. 

T.  How  does  he  use  it  ? 

Ch.  The  motion  is  something  like  drawing  a  bow  across  the  strings  of 
a  violin.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.  Pupils  will  now  perceive 
the  use  of  the  large  teeth  on  the  hind  legs.) 

Ch.  I  think  some  grasshoppers  make  another  noise. 

T.  Yes,  some  do ;  and  that  noise  is  supposed  to  be  made  by  the  air 
rushing  in  and  out  of  the  spiracles  and  striking  against  a  sharp 
edge  which  borders  the  spiracles. 


174  LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 

T.  "NVho  has  observed  any  other  habit? 

Ch.  The  grasshopper  stridulates  only  in  fine  weather.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 

T.  About  what  time  does  the  grasshopper  appear  ? 

Ch.  He  comes  late  in  the  summer. 

T.  How  long  does  he  stay? 

Ch.  He  stays  until  cold  weather. 

T.  What  do  you  infer  from  that  ? 

Ch.  He  is  fond  of  warm  weather. 

T.  When  you  have  watched  him  in  the  field,  what  have  you  observed 
in  regard  to  his  fondness  for  warmth  ? 

Ch.  We  saw  him  sitting  in  the  sun.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  How  many  have  seen  grasshoppers  in  the  shade  ? 

Ch.  We  have  seen  them  in  the  shade,  but  they  stay  longer  in  the  sun- 
light. 

T.  On  what  kind  of  land  have  you  found  the  greatest  number  of 
grasshoppers  ? 

Ch.  On  high  land.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  What  is  true  of  high  land  in  regard  to  moisture  compared  with  low 
land? 

Ch.  The  high  land  is  dry,  and  the  low  is  not. 

T.  Then  what  places  do  the  grasshoppers  frequent  ? 

Ch.  They  frequent  dry  places.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

T.  We  are  now  ready  for  other  statements. 

Ch.  They  eat  a  great  deal.  (T.  here  refers  to  the  destruction  of  crops 
by  the  locust.) 

T.  What  else  can  you  say  of  them  ? 

Ch.  They  eat  vegetables. 

Ch.  They  chew  (grind)  their  food. 

Ch.  They  make  a  noise  at  night.  (Xearly  every  child  will  know  that 
the  tree  grasshopper  does  this.     If  not,  the  T.  will  tell  them.) 

T.  You  may  tell  where  they  live. 

Ch.  The  large  green  grasshoppers  live  in  trees ;  the  small  grasshop- 
pers frequent  meadows  and  fields.     (Class  decision.     T.  confirm.) 

Ch.  They  lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground.  (T.  will  tell  pupils  that  the 
true  grasshopper  does  this,  and  refer  them  to  the  use  of  the  ovipos- 
itor. But  the  locust  does  not  take  such  good  care  of  its  eggs ;  it 
deposits  them  in  the  ground  without  making  a  hole.  ISIay  also  tell 
them  the  habit  the  green  grasshoppers  have  of  leaving  the  trees  at 
night  and  betaking  themselves  to  the  meadows  and  fields. 

T.  "Wlio  can  think  of  another  habit  ? 

Ch.  They  use  their  fore  legs  as  vre  do  our  hands.  (Class  decision. 
T.  confirm.) 


THE  GRASSHOPPER.  175 

T.  You  may  speak  of  their  manner  of  flying. 

Note.  —  If  the  children  have  not  perceived  the  short,  uncertain  flight 
of  the  grasshopper,  the  T.  may  explain ;  also  lead  them  to  state 
that  the  locusts  make  long  journeys  from  place  to  place,  moving  in 
crowds.) 

T.  Now,  if  you  have  mentioned  all  the  habits  of  the  grasshoppers  and 
locusts,  we  shall  consider  of  what  use  they  are  in  the  world. 

Ch.  They  are  not  of  any  use. 

T.  Who  knows  whether  that  is  true  ? 

Ch.  They  are  food  for  birds.  (Class  decision.  T.  confirm.)  T.  may 
lead  children  to  see  that  they  destroy  weeds  and  much  offensive 
matter ;  may  refer  to  the  use  the  wasp  makes  of  them ;  and,  if  they 
.  do  not  know,  tell  them  that  grasshoppers  and  locusts  were  (and 
are)  used  by  the  people  of  the  East  for  food.  They  are  eaten  with 
honey  and  oil,  and  are  considered  very  delicious.  (T.  may  here 
explain  partial  metamorphosis.) 


176 


LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 


SUMMARY  OF  WORK. 


The  Grasshopper. 


I.  Parts 


Head 


1.  Description. 
Eyes, 


I. 


Parts  ■> 


1.  Description. 


two,  compound,  facets,  elHptical, 
hard,  smooth,  glossy,  bro^\Ti. 
Antennae,  —  two,  long,  slender,  round, 
dark  brown,  in  front  of  eyes. 
Labrum. 
Mandibles. 
Maxillae. 
Labium. 
Maxillary  palpi. 
.  Labial  palpi. 


.  Mouth  parts 


Thorax 


2.  Parts  i 

I  Attachments 


.  Abdomen  -I 

I  2. 


IL  Geographical  Distribution 


f  Three  segments,  irregular  in  form,  — 
j       prothorax,  mesothorax,  metathorax. 
r  Three  pairs  of  legs  and 
two  pairs  of  wings. 
Shield      covering      the 
[      shoulders. 
Description. 

'  Eight  or  more  articulated  (jointed)  seg- 
ments,  bearing   apparatus    on    first 
Parts  -l       segment. 

Spiracles,  —  two  on  each  segment,  ovi- 
positor. 

Throughout  the  United  States. 
Li  Europe. 
In  Asia. 
In  Africa. 

(Mention  countries  where  the  locust 
has  been  especially  destructive.) 


IIL  Habits - 


10. 
IL 
12. 
13. 
14. 

15. 


Stridulation  (in  dry  weather). 

Hopping  or  jumping. 

Deposit  eggs  in  the  earth. 

Partial  metamorphosis. 

Live  in  meadows. 

Green  grasshoppers  live  in  trees. 

Vegetable  feeders. 

Cut  and  grind  food. 

Locusts  move  in  crowds,  and  are  migratory. 

Grasshoppers'  flight  unsteady. 

Frequents  dry  land. 

Sits  in  the  sun. 

They  eat  enormously. 

Use  the  forelegs  for  holding  food. 

'  1 .  The  egg. 
Three  stages  of  existence  -<j  2.  The  insect  without  wings. 
3.  The  perfect  insect. 


THE  GRASSHOPPER. 


177 


f    1.  They  destroy  weeds  and  other  offensive  matter. 
IV.  Uses    .  <     2.  They  are  food  for  domestic  and  wild  fowl. 
[_    3.  They  are  used  as  food  by  some  people. 

N'oTE.  —  If  other  uses  are  known,  they  may  be  added  here.  Indeed, 
any  part  of  the  lessons  may  be  greatly  improved  by  adding  more  knowl- 
edge, if  the  teacher  possesses  it.  If  he  continues  to  study  and  teach,  he 
will  have  thousands  of  ways  of  extending  his  information.  Nothing  has 
been  done  with  the  nervous  system,  nor  the  digestive  apparatus  of  this 
insect,  as  the  pupils  will  not  be  able  for  some  time  to  take  up  work  in- 
volving such  close  observation.  Circulation  may  be  touched  upon  when 
studying  the  veining  of  the  wings. 


A. 
Parts 


II. 

Thorax 


ni. 

Abdomen 


2.  Parts 


SUMMARY  OF  LESSONS  ON  THE  FIELD  CRICKET. 
The  Field  Cricket. 

'  1.  Description  (size,  form,  surface,  qualities,  color, 
position,  motions). 

I.        J  f  !•  Eyes  (number,  size,  structure,  form,  sur- 

Head     1  face,  qualities,  color,  use,  position). 

2.  Antennse  (number,  size,  form,  surface, 
structure,  qualities,  color,  uses,  posi- 
tion, motions). 

3.  Mouth  parts  (number,  size,  form,  sur- 
face, structure,  color,  motions,  quali- 
ties, uses,  positions,  names). 

1.  Description  (size,  form,  surface,  qualities,  color, 
position). 

2  Parts  I  ^®g"^®^ts  (number,   size,   form,   surface, 
structure,  qualities,  color,  position). 


3.  Attach- 
ments 


1.  Wings  (number,  size,  form,  surface, 

structure,  qualities,  color,  uses, 
positions,  peculiarities  of  veining^ 
motions). 

2.  Legs   (number,    size,   form,   surface, 

structure,  qualities,  colpr,  uses,  posi- 
tion, motions). 


'1.  Description  (size,  form,  surface,  structure,  quali- 
ties, color,  position,  motions). 

'  1.  Segments  (number,  size,  form,  surface, 
structure,  qualities,  color,  position, 
motions). 

2.  Stylets    (number,   size,   form,  surface, 
.  2.  Parts  <  structure,  qualities,  color,  uses,  posi- 
tion) . 

3.  Ovipositor  (description,  uses). 

4.  Spiracles   (number,   form,  color,  uses, 
position). 


178 


LESSONS  ON  INSECTS. 


g  r  They  are  found  throughout  the  United  States. 

Geographical  J  Found  also  hi  Europe  and  Asia. 

Distribution  ^^    Indies  a  species  exists  which  destroys  the 

t      sugar-cane. 


C.  Habits 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 

14. 


Partial  metamorphosis. 

The  female  lays  about  three  hundred  eggs  in  a  mass. 

The  pupae  are  wingless,  and  remain  torpid  in  the 

ground  during  the  winter. 
They  jump  or  leap  as  the  grasshopper  does,  but 

they  fly  very  rarely,  and  for  short  distances. 
Xocturnal,  and  somewhat  solitary. 
Young  live  peaceably,  but  older  ones  fight. 
They  are  very  shy. 
Seldom  comes  out  in  the  daytime  unless  disturbed. 

(May  be  brought  out  by  letting  down  a  straw 

into  its  hole;   the  cricket  clings  to  it,  and  is 

drawn  out.) 
Vegetable  and  animal  feeders. 
They  drink  dew  on  flowers. 
Do  not  like  to  get  wet. 
Have  holes  in  the  earth. 
Shrilling  (by  male  rubbing  wings  together  to  attract 

the  female). 
Eat  voraciously. 


D.  Uses 


They  destroy  other  insects  and  offensive  matter. 


II. 

QUINOY  SCHOOL  WOEK. 


QUIKCY   SCHOOL  WOEK. 


INTRODUCTION. 

\Vhile  it  is  claimed  by  Supt.  Parker  and  others  that  there  is  nothing 
new  in  his  methods,  no  new  system,  —  simply  carrying  out  in  a  rational 
way  the  fundamental  principles  of  mental  training  as  practised  by  the 
scholars  and  teacher  in  centuries  past,  —  yet  it  cannot  be  gainsaid  that, 
if  the  teachers  of  America  have  known  the  methods  used  in  Quincy,  it  is  a 
sad  reflection  upon  them  that  they  have  not  attained  better  results  in 
teaching  the  essential  subjects. 

The  author  of  the  "  School-Room  Guide  "  makes  this  admission  to  the 
public,  —  that,  after  studying  the  best  methods  and  systems  of  education 
for  twenty-five  years,  he  saw  many  new  methods  of  teaching  in  the  Quincy 
schools ;  that  he  has  from  time  to  time  made  application  of  the  methods, 
and  through  persistent  application  has  attained  the  best  results. 

In  the  first  publication  of  the  "  School-Room  Guide,"  in  1874,  I  set 
forth  many  of  the  methods  used  by  the  teachers  in  the  Quincy  schools. 
On  my  visit  to  the  schools,  I  found  that  the  teachers  had  mastered  the 
methods,  and  many  others  that  I  had  never  discovered. 

It  is  only  just  to  say  that  the  teachers  under  Supt.  Parker's  supervision 
have  surpassed  others  in  the  application  of  methods.  In  every  exercise 
that  I  saw,  it  seemed  to  be  the  rational  method  of  teaching  naturally 
applied. 

For  the  benefit  of  teachers  throughout  the  nation,  and  through  the 
permission  of  Supt.  Parker,  I  will  report  what  I  saw  in  the  Quincy  schools, 
what  I  heard  at  "Martha's  Vineyard  Summer  Institute,"  in  the  year  1881, 
and  what  I  have  gained  by  conference  and  reading.  Personally,  I  wish 
to  acknowledge  my  gratitude  to  Supt.  Parker,  for  I  have  been  strength- 
ened through  his  intelligent  direction  in  school  work. 

Too  much  praise  cannot  be  given  to  Supt.  Parker  for  the  work  he  did 
in  Quincy.  He  has  fixed  principles  of  action,  and  has  proven  beyond  a 
doubt  that  they  can  be  vigorously  and  practically  applied  in  school  work. 
His  aim  was  to  get  primary  teachers  out  of  "/Ae  rut"  and  give  to  the  peo- 
ple a  higher  and  better  order  of  work  in  the  primary  departments  in  graded 
and  ungraded  schools. 

That  he  has  accomplished  this,  thousands  of  the  best  teachers  through- 
out the  country  will  testify.  His  manner  of  teaching  has  revolutionized 
primary  work  in  more  than  one-half  of  the  schools  in  the  United  States. 


182  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 


The  following  Report  from  Prof.  Hermann  B.  Boisen,  late  op 
Williams  College,  bears  on  this  surject.  It  was  published 
IN  the  "Boston  Transcript "  of  Oct.  26,  1881:  — 

The  charge  of  laxity  with  regard  to  the  Quincy  schools  is  certainly 
not  new.  I  have  heard  the  Quincy  work  discussed  frequently  and  for 
years,  both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  and  almost  invariably  by  two 
sorts  of  people.  Some  denied  to  it  all  originality,  and  claimed  that  the 
so-called  "  Quincy  methods  "  were  really  and  properly  their  own ;  while 
the  others  denied  to  it  all  merit,  criticised  severely  the  resulting  laxity  of 
discipline  and  work.  But  few  of  them,  as  I  discovered  to-day,  had  more 
than  a  very  vague  idea  of  what  was  really  done  in  Quincy  itself. 

Desirous  to  know  what  I  ought  to  do,  —  whether  to  scorn  with  those 
scorning  Quincy  pretensions,  or  to  frown  with  those  frowning  with  Quincy 
laxity,  —  I  went  this  morning  to  examine  for  myself. 

Now  I  undoubtedly  saw  a  new  state  of  things,  and  breathed  a  new 
atmosphere.  Aside  from  the  question  whether  the  discipline  be  lax  and 
the  influence  upon  American  youth  be  disastrous  or  not, — be  that  as  it 
may,  —  if  there  are  really  other  communities  and  other  school  systems 
accomplishing  similar  results  with  similar  methods,  and  with  the  same 
unity  of  work  and  aim,  then  I  certainly  have  failed  to  discover  them,  and 
that  in  spite  of  the  most  diligent  search.  And  yet  I  have  taken  special 
pains  to  visit  the  schools  of  those  principals  who  claimed  the  Quincy 
method  par  excellence,  and  I  found  some  that  really  had  the  Quincy  ma- 
chinery, but  they  had  left  behind  th  e  motive  power ;  and  I  found  others 
that  had  the  Quincy  liberty,  but  without  the  Quincy  law;  while  those 
who  were  the  loudest  in  their  pretensions  had  usually  neither  the  one  nor 
the  other. 

Col.  Parker  was  a  teacher  before  the  war,  and  retiring  from  the  army 
at  the  close  of  the  war,  resumed  his  early  occupation.  He  taught  in  the 
East  and  in  the  West,  in  Illinois  and  Ohio,  but  he  was  not  satisfied  with 
the  prevailing  methods  of  instruction.  In  a  word,  he  taught  until  he  be- 
came convinced  that  he  was  not  teaching  in  the  right  way.  Then  he 
abandoned  the  profession  of  a  teacher,  and  became  a  pupil.  He  spent 
three  years  of  his  mature  life  as  a  student  in  the  universities  of  Germany. 
He  went  to  Germany  under  a  strong  impression  that  there  ought  to  be  a 
science  of  teaching ;  he  returned  thoroughly  convinced  that  the  germs  of 
such  a  science  had  long  ago  been  discovered  by  Rousseau,  and  applied,  in 
a  measure,  by  Pestalozzi  and  Froebel,  and  other  educators  of  Europe. 
What  is  more,  Col.  Parker  returned  with  the  modest  conviction  that  he 
had  mastered,  to  a  degree,  the  science  of  teaching.  Of  this  fact  he  was 
able  to  convince  the  Hon.  Charles  Francis  Adams,  Jr.,  who  was  already 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  183 

thoroughly  imbued  with  a  sense  of  the  radical  deficiencies  of  the  existing 
system,  and  this  led  to  a  trial  of  the  Quincy  experiment  under  very  favor- 
able conditions. 

The  Hon.  John  Quincy  Adams,  in  the  school  report  for  1880-81,  thus 
gives  the  result  of  Col.  Parker's  superintendency :  — 

"  For  five  years  the  town  had  the  benefit  of  his  faithful,  intelligent, 
and  enthusiastic  services.  In  those  years  he  transformed  our  public 
schools.  He  found  them  machines,  he  left  them  living  organizations ; 
drill  gave  way  to  growth,  and  the  weary  prison  became  a  pleasure-house. 
He  breathed  life,  growth,  and  happiness  into  our  school-rooms.  Year  by 
year,  as  the  change  went  on,  the  gradual  process  of  transition  was  reported 
to  the  town,  and  year  by  year  the  town,  by  great  majorities,  approved  the 
work,  and  sustained  its  author.  The  committee  have  never  doubted  that 
he  wrought  a  great  gain  to  education  among  us,  and  that  our  schools  have 
been  vastly  bettered  by  the  methods  he  introduced,  the  organization  he 
effected,  and  the  enthusiasm  he  instilled." 

After  five  years  in  Quincy,  Col.  Parker  accepted  the  superintendency 
of  the  primary  schools  of  Boston.  He  was  called  from  the  Boston  schools 
to  the  Cook  County  Normal  School,  Englewood,  Illinois,  where  he  is  to- 
day engrafting  his  reformed  methods  of  teaching. 

Extract  from  the  Pennsylvania  School  Journal. 

"  The  300,000  teachers  of  this  country  are  as  faithful,  honest,  and 
earnest  as  any  other  class  of  active' workers.  If,  then,  these  great  truths 
in  education  be  at  the  doors  of  our  educators,  why  do  they  not  acquire 
and  use  them  ?  The  answer  is  not  far  to  seek.  Not  one  teacher  in  500 
ever  makes  a  practical,  thorough  study  of  the  history  of  education,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  science.  Thought  expressed  concretely  in  inventions  and 
machinery  has  changed. 

"Is  it  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  application  of  this  science, 
which  has  for  its  purpose  the  development  of  thought,  would  make  changes 
far  broader  and  better  for  the  world's  good  than  the  application  of  steam 
or  electricity?  The  tremendous  projecting  power  of  tradition  stands  stub- 
bornly in  the  way  of  progress  in  education.  It  can  only  be  met  and  over- 
come by  the  most  thorough,  searching,  and  indefatigable  study  of  tlie 
child's  nature,  and  of  the  means  by  which  the  possibilities  for  good  in 
God's  greatest  creation  may  be  realized. 

"  This  exposition  of  the  new,  and  yet  old,  science  of  teaching  is  brief 
and  necessarily  incomplete  —  a  bird's  eye  view  —  but  it  is  sufficient  to 
show  that  the  true  method  of  teaching  according  to  Col.  Parker  differs 
radically,  fundamentally,  from  the  method  now  in  use  by  300,000  teachers 
in  the  United  States ;  and  in  considering  this  fact,  —  the  magnitude  of  the 


184  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

fraternity  of  teachers  now  imparting  instruction  in  the  old  routine  way,  — 
the  proposed  Avork  of  reform  is  assuming  an  almost  appalling  aspect.  For 
Col.  Parker  well  remarks,  inf  erentially,  that  no  teacher  is  properly  equipped 
for  the  practice  of  his  profession  until  he  has  mastered  both  the  history 
and  science  of  education.  This  fact  alone  shows  the  exacting  nature  of 
the  teacher's  profession  under  the  new  regime.  But  it  is  not  alone  in  the 
matter  of  preparation  that  the  profession  is  exacting.  The_new  system 
of  teaching  destroys  the  old  .machine,  but  it  does  not  put  a  new  machine 
in  its^place.  As  Mr.  Adams,  already  quoted,  says :  '  Col.  Parker  found 
our  schools  machines  ;  he  left  them  living  organisms.'  Now,  where  there 
is  real  intellectual  life,  there  is  luxuriant  intellectual  growth.  The  child's 
mind  expands  under  scientific  training  as  naturally  and  as  rapidly  as 
plants  develop  under  the  genial  influence  of  light,  heat,  moisture,  and  air. 
But  there  is  no  rest  for  the  husbandman  through  the  early  stages  of  the 
growth  of  the  plant.  Almost  incessant  cultivation  is  an  essential  requi- 
site to  a  full  harvest.  So  of  the  child  under  the  new  regime.  He  is  not 
crammed  from  books,  so  much  to-day  and  so  much  to-morrow,  but  he  is 
stimulated  to  think  instead  of  being  thrown  into  a  comatose  state  by  ab- 
stractions. He  is  shown,  for  instance,  in  number,  not  that  two  and  two 
make  four  merely,  but  that  two  and  two  things  make  four  things.  When 
he  is  shown  a  sign  he  is  also  shown  the  object  of  the  sign.  This  method 
causes  the  child's  mind  to  put  forth  thoughts  as  the  plant  puts  forth 
leaves ;  and  every  fresh  thought  enlarges  the  sphere  of  observation,  bring- 
ing the  child  into  new  relations  with  the  universe  of  things.  At  each  new 
discovery  his  face  lights  up  with  pleasure.  He  makes  comparisons,  draws 
conclusions,  asks  questions,  makes  startling  philosophic  observations.  In 
a  word,  he  becomes  an  inquirer  after  truth.  This  is  the  explanation  of 
Mr.  Adams's  remark  of  Col.  Parker,  —  *He  breathed  life,  growth,  and 
happiness  into  our  school-rooms.  He  found  our  schools  machines ;  he  left 
them  living  organisms.'  " 

Explanatory  Remarks. 

I  visited  the  schools  of  Quincy  in  the  year  1880,  —  then  under  the 
supervision  of  Supt.  Francis  AY.  Parker,  —  and  carefully  observed  the 
work. 

Before  entering  the  school,  I  had  a  talk  with  Supt.  Parker  across  the 
breakfast-table  of  an  hour,  upon  his  work  in  Quincy,  and  there  I  found 
out  his  secret  of  success. 

Supt.  Parker  had  studied  the  history  and  the  science  of  education,  and 
had  come  nearer  to  a  mastery  of  them  than  any  other  educator  or  teacher 
in  this  country.  He  had  positive,  fixed  principles  of  action,  and  had  settled 
upon  his  way  of  doing  the  work. 

After  talking  with  him,  I  was  not  so  much  surprised  in  witnessing  the 


QUINCY   SCHOOL   WORK.  1^5 

best  work  that  I  had  ever  seen  in  the  primary  departments,  in  Reading, 
Spelling,  Language,  Penmanship,  Number,  Geography,  and  History. 

1  was  so  well  pleased  with  what  J  had  observed  in  the  Quincy  schools, 
that  in  the  year  1881  I  attended  the  first  "Martha's  Vineyard  Sunnner  In- 
stitute," and  became  a  pupil  under  his  instruction.  Through  the  kindness 
ofWm.J.  Slattery,  principal  of  a  public  school  in  Paterson,  N.  J.,  I  have 
obtained  full  notes  of  the  work  done  by  Supt.  Parker  at  the  "  Martha's 
Vineyard  Summer  Institute,"  of  1882.  I  would  also  state  that  Mr.  Kel- 
logg, editor  of  the  "  New  York  School  Journal,"  kindly  permitted  me  to 
examine  his  file  of  papers,  and  use  any  items  of  the  "  Quincy  Work." 

The  work  has  been  classified,  and  the  questions  and  the  answers  so 
arranged  as  to  form  a  Compendium  on  Teaching. 

Great  pains  have  been  taken  to  obtain  Supt.  Parker's  crystallized  state- 
ments of  his  work  in  the  Quincy  schools. 

Let  the  reader  imagine  Supt.  Parker  standing  before  a  body  of  earnest^ 
anxious  teachers,  who  are  eager  to  obtain  light  upon  teaching. 


186  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS   RELATING   TO   THE 
SCIENCE   AND   ART   OF   TEACHING. 


Question.  Can  the  new  system  have  a  fair  trial  in  the  hands  of  the  old 
regime  of  teachers  ? 

Answer.  If  there  is  a  science  of  teaching,  it  must  be  understood  before 
it  can  be  imparted  to  the  pupil,  and  if  this  science  involves  the  use  of  a 
radically  different  method  from  that  now  followed,  it  is  idle  to  assume 
that  the  new  system  can  have  a  fair  trial  in  the  hands  of  the  old  regime  of 
teachers.  For  they  must  not  only  acquire  an  almost  entirely  new  science, 
but  must  unlearn  ever}i;hing  inconsistent  with  it,  in  the  old  system ;  and 
this  in  the  midst  of  the  daily  performance  of  duties  requiring  an  undi- 
vided attention.  The  fundamentals  of  a  science  are  not  to  be  acquired  in 
this  way.  Studying  a  science  while  in  the  constant  practice  of  violating  its 
fundamental  principles  produces  inextricable  confusion  in  the  mind  of 
the  student.  The  old  errors  are  not  thoroughly  eradicated,  and  the  new 
truths  fail  to  secure  a  firm  lodgment. 

Q.  Is  there  a  science  of  teaching  ?  And  if  so,  what  are  its  principles, 
and  what  are  the  methods  of  its  professors  ?  In  a  word,  what  is  the  dif- 
ference between  the  old  method  of  teaching  and  the  new  ? 

A.  The  true  ideal  of  education  is  the  harmonious  development  of 
all  the  powers  of  the  body,  mind,  and  soul,  or,  in  other  words,  the  purpose 
of  all  those  who  have  to  do  with  children  should  be  to  make  out  of  them 
the  very  best  possible  men  and  women.  This  consists  of  nothing  short 
of  the  realization  of  all  the  possibilities  for  growth  that  lie  latent  in  the 
mind  of  the  little  child.  How  this  may  best  be  done  is  the  great  problem 
for  aU  educators.  On  the  one  hand,  we  have  the  mind  and  its  powers 
to  be  developed ;  on  the  other,  we  must  seek  for  means  of  development. 
Now  it  would  seem  that  the  more  the  teacher  knows  of  the  mind,  its 
faculties,  laws  of  growth,  and  limitations,  the  better  he  can  apply  the 
means  of  development.  It  is  not  claimed  that  all  the  powers  and  laws  of 
the  mind  have  yet  been  discovered.  But  it  is  well  known  that  there  is  a 
substantial  agreement  on  the  part  of  all  psychologists  concerning  the 
main  laws  of  thought  and  its  development.  Calderwood  says :  "As  to 
the  laws  of  observation,  of  association,  of  reason,  of  pleasurable  feeling, 
there* is  all  but  perfect  agreement  among  them."  The  science  of  education 
consists  of  a  synthetic  and  systematic  arrangement  of  these  known  laws 
in  such  a  way  that  they  may  be  best  applied  to  mental  growth.  That  is, 
the  teacher  who  comprehends  the  science  of  education  need  not  violate 
one  of  these  laws  in  his  instruction  of  children. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  187 

The  discussion  of  what  these  laws  are  is  by  no  means  a  new  one.  It 
has  extended  throughout  several  centuries,  and  he  who  studies  the  history 
of  education  will  find  that  Bacon,  Locke,  Comenius,  Rousseau,  Pestalozzi, 
Froebel,  Spencer,  and  Mann  have  shown  how  mind  can  be  developed,  and 
the  true  ways  of  acquiring  knowledge.  Although  no  one  of  these  great 
thinkers  has  presented  a  full  science  of  education,  and  although  they  have 
differed  in  matters  of  detail,  yet,  in  fundamental  principles,  they  are 
substantially  a  unit. 

Q.  To  one  who  is  anxious  to  know  more  of  the  science  of  education, 
what  is  necessary  ? 

A.  The  most  important  work  of  to-day  is  to  collect,  reconcile,  and 
apply  all  the  princij)les  and  methods  of  education  that  have  been  discov- 
ered in  the  past  into  one  science  and  art  of  teaching.  This  would  certainly 
radically  change  all  our  school  work  in  this  country.  When  this  is  done, 
the  ground  will  be  made  ready  for  new  advances  in  the  incomplete  science 
of  education.  Because  a  complete  science  has  not  yet  been  discovered  is 
a  very  poor  reason  for  not  applying  what  we  already  know.  What  specific 
changes  would  the  application  of  known  mental  laws  in  teaching,  about 
which  all  psychologists  are  in  agreement,  bring  about  ?  For  it  is  only  by 
a  sharp  comparison  of  what  is  now  done  according  to  tradition  and  custom 
in  our  schools,  with  that  which  can  be  done  by  the  application  of  the  sim- 
plest principles  of  teaching,  that  the  value  of  the  true  art  of  instruction 
may  be  in  some  degree  appreciated. 

Q.  What  must  be  done  in  order  to  inspire  and  develop  the  realities  of 
thought  ?     Is  it  possible  to  do  things  by  doing  something  else  ? 

A.  To  illustrate  this,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  little  children  have 
been  taught  to  read  in  the  past,  and  a  great  majority  of  them  are  now 
taught,  by  a  method  that  is  utterly  opposed  to  a  mental  law  about  which 
there  can  be  no  dispute  among  those  who  know  anything  of  the  science 
of  teaching.  I  refer  to  the  miserable  A-B-C  method.  Xearly  300  years 
ago,  Comenius  discovered  a  rule  of  teaching  which  may  be  said  to  embrace 
all  the  rules  in  its  category :  "  Things  that  have  to  he  done  should  he  learned 
by  doing  them."  This  rule  is  so  simple  and  plain  that  every  one  except  the 
teachers  has  adopted  and  used  it  since  man  has  lived  upon  the  earth.  If 
I  am  not  very  much  mistaken,  the  schoolmaster  for  the  last  fifty  years  has 
been  incessantly  inventing  ways  of  doing  things  in  the  school-room  by 
doing  something  else.  We  try  to  teach  the  English  language  by  rules, 
definitions,  analysis,  diagrams,  and  parsing ;  before  the  poor,  innocent 
child  can  write  a  single  sentence  correctly,  we  jbeach  the  painful  pronunci- 
ation of  words  without  the  grasping  of  thought  or  reading.  We  vainly 
endeavor  to  give  children  a  knowledge  of  number,  by  teaching  figures,  the 
signs  of  number.  We  cram  our  victim's  mind  full  of  empty,  meaningless 
words  instead  of  inspiring  and  developing  them  by  the  sweet  and  strong 


188  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

realities  of  thought.  This  futile  struggle  to  do  things  by  doing  something 
else  is  to-day  costing  the  people  of  this  country  millions  and  millions  of 
hard-earned  dollars ;  and  it  is  much  to  be  feared  that  it  will  one  day  cost 
their  children  the  blessings  of  a  free  government.    This  is  a  serious  charge. 


^ 


Q.   AVhat  is  education  ? 

A.    Education  is  not  training  ;  it  is  self-development. 

Q.   AVhat  is  the  best  way  of  acquiring  a  science  ? 

A.   The  study  of  a  science  is  the  best  way  of  acquiring  a  science. 

Q.  Some  teachers  use  a  device  in  teaching.  Do  you  call  a  device  a 
method  ? 

A.   A  device  is  not  a  method. 

Q.   What  is  skill  in  the  teacher  ? 

A.    Facile  and  ingenious  expression  of  knowledge. 

Q.    What  is  method  ? 

A.   Natural,  true  method  is  the  perfect  adaptation  of  this  expression  to 
the  mind.     This  is  method  in  all  its  length,  depth,  and  breadth. 
^    Q.   What  is  teaching? 

A.    Teaching  is  the  harmonious  development  of  the  human  mind. 

Q.   What  is  necessary  before  we  can  develoj)  the  human  mind  ? 

A.   AVe  must  know  what  the  mind  is  before  we  can  develop  it. 

Q.    How  can  this  be  done? 

A.    By  teaching  experimentally,  and  watching  its  action. 

Q.   What  is  meant  by  skill  in  the  teacher  ? 

A.  It  is  the  means  of  knowing  the  nature  and  power  of  the  thought 
in  the  mind  of  the  child.  The  pupil  must  get  thought  himself.  The 
value  of  the  mental  action  is  the  power  acquired  in  the  getting  of  the 
thought.     Mental  growth  is  education. 

Q.    Where  does  the  child  get  his  idea  ? 

A.   From  the  external  w^orld. 

Q.   What  is  the  best  means  of  getting  a  language  ? 

A.   The  study  of  a  science  is  the  best  means  of  getting  a  language. 

Q.   What  is  the  teaching  of  language  ? 

A.  The  teaching  of  language  is  the  development  of  thought.  Skill, 
or  manifestation,  is  the  means  of  watching  thought.  The  form  of  the 
thought  secondary,  but  important.  Thought-training  and  expression  go 
hand  in  hand ;  the  expression  measures  the  power  of  thought. 

Q.   What  is  the  foundation  of  education  ? 

A.  Training  the  senses  is  the  foundation  of  education,  and  it  has  also 
much  to  do  with  the  superstructm-e.  The  practical  value  of  close,  accurate 
observation  cannot  be  overestimated. 

Q.    What  is  teaching  ? 

A.  Teaching  is  defined  as  leading  the  mind  out  and  up  to  the  power 
of  grasping  thought  and  comprehending  knowledge;  and  the  best  teach 


QTJINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  1^9 

ing  is  that  which  develops  all  the  faculties  harmoniously,  —  the  senses, 
reason,  imagination,  will,  etc.  A  great  diifereiice  between  the  work  done 
here  and  that  to  which  we  are  accustomed  is  this :  The  principal  work  of 
Quincy  teachers  is  teaching.  The  great  mass  of  teachers  train  but  do  not»- 
teach.  Subjects  must  be  taught  without  regard  to  pages  of  text-books 
until  they  become  a  part  of  the  child's  mind ;  that,  in  teaching,  words 
play  a  minor  though  an  important  part,  being  the  servants,  not  the 
masters.  The  senses  are  trained  by  proper  exercise ;  original  observation 
and  investigation  are  stimulated,  thus  leading  up  to  thought  and  reason- 
ing. They  try  to  keep  ever  in  view  the  fact  that  the  mind  grows  entirely 
by  its  own  activities ;  that  explanations  and  lectures  not  assimilated  by 
pupils  are  fully  as  bad  as  the  old  text-book  methods.  Some  of  the  most 
valuable  results  of  the  "  New  Departure  "  are  seen  in  the  increased  capa- 
bility of  children  for  work,  —  the  formations  of  habits  of  systematic  work, 
— the  real  love  of  the  children  for  work,, — the  increased  capability  of 
children,  as  they  leave  school,  to  master  whatever  trade,  profession,  or 
business  they  may  enter  upon. 

Q.   You  speak  of  device  in  teaching.     What  do  you  mean  ? 

A.   Device  is  a  bending  of  method  to  the  individual  condition. 

Q.   How  would  you  seek  to  develop  character  ? 

A.  Character  is  formed  by  habits  ;  habits  by  repetition  of  actions. 
Bad  habits  are  cured  by  doing  the  right  thing  over  and  over  again. 
Character  is  a  growth,  a  very  slow  growth ;  it  is  formed  of  every  deed, 
thought,  and  word. 


READING. 

First  Work  in  School. 

Question.   What  is  the  first  work  to  be  done  with  a  child  in  school  ? 

Answer.  The  fundamental  idea  is  the  application  of  Nature's  method 
in  teaching  children.  Hagel  says  that  "  the  average  child  of  six  years  has 
learned  as  much  as  he  will  learn  during  the  remainder  of  his  life."  The 
first  work  in  the  school  is  to  make  the  child  feel  at  home ;  to  over- 
come his  natural  timidity  and  shyness,  and  let  him  get  acquainted  with 
his  schoolmates.  If  left  to  themselves,  in  less  than  fifteen  minutes  they 
will  become  faniiliar  friends.  Now  begin  to  quicken  the  senses,  and  to 
stimulate  the  perceptions ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  enlarge  the  ability  to 
receive  information.  Every  fact  that  he  knows  has  made  its  way  to  the 
brain  through  the  avenue  of  the  senses. 

Q.    We  would  like  to  know  how  to  begin  to  teach  the  children  to  read. 

A.    As  I  have  before  stated,  the  first  eifort  of  the  teacher  is  to  break 


190  QUmCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

down  all  barriers  of  restraint  and  timidity  between  tbe  teacher  and  the 
children,  and  in  so  doing  engage  them  in  conversation  upon  some  object 
with  which  they  are  perfectly  familiar,  never  allowing  the  language  of 
the  teacher  to  get  beyond  the  children's  vocabulary,  —  thus  leading  them 
along  step  by  step  until  the  children  feel  perfectly  at  home.  In  such  a 
conversation  the  talk  may  be  about  a  hen,  and  the  teacher  while  talking 
has  gone  to  the  board  and  commenced  drawing  the  picture  of  a  hen, 
leading  the  conversation  to  the  different  parts  of  the  hen  as  she  draws  it. 
Remember  this :  — 

"Sounds  which  address  the  ear  are  lost  and  die 
In  one  short  hour;   but  that  which  strikes  the  eye 
Lives  long  upon  the  mind ;    the  faithful  sight 
Engraves  the  knowledge  with  a  beam  of  light." 

After  contemplating  the  picture,  by  some  device,  the  teacher  makes  known 
to  the  mind  of  the  child,  that  when  she  speaks  the  word  hen,  his  school- 
mates all  think  of  a  hen,  and  in  like  manner,  when  the  teacher  points  to 
the  picture  of  a  hen,  they  all  think  of  a  hen.  In  this  way  she  developes  in 
the  mind  of  the  child  the  fact  that  the  spoken  word  and  the  picture  serve 
the  same  purpose.  As  soon  as  the  teacher  is  satisfied  that  the  children 
comprehend  her  thus  far,  she  writes  the  word  hen  on  the  board,  near  the 
picture,  telling  the  children  that  also  causes  her  to  think  of  a  hen.  It  may 
be  well  to  write  the  word  hen  three  or  four  times  on  different  parts  of  the 
board,  and  call  on  the  children  to  speak  the  word  when  it  is  pointed  out. 
Although  the  children  may  not  know  other  words,  it  is  well  to  write  two 
or  three  new  words  on  the  board  in  a  column,  one  of  which  shall  be  the 
word  hen,  and  request  the  children  to  find  the  word  hen  among  them.  A 
hunt  will  be  made,  and  usually  they  will  find  the  right  w^ord.  (If  the 
teacher  should-  ask  the  children  why  the  other  words  were  not  the  word 
hen,  they  would  say,  "  they  don't  look  like  it.")  Then  the  teacher  should 
write  the  word  hen  in  large  letters,  so  that  the  form  of  each  letter  may  be 
seen  by  the  children,  and  request  the  children  to  pass  to  their  seats  and 
write  the  word  hen.  About  one-fourth  of  the  slate  should  be  ruled  accord- 
ing to  the  German  method,  and  the  children  should  be  taught  where 
to  begin.  Encourage  every  effort  put  forth  by  the  children.  At  the  next 
lesson,  she  w^ill  ask  the  children  how  many  of  them  would  like  to  tell  a 
story  about  the  hen,  and  of  course  every  hand  will  be  raised  to  say  some- 
thing about  the  hen.  In  the  meantime,  while  the  talk  has  been  going  on, 
with  a  few  strokes  of  the  crayon  the  teacher  has  added  some  feature 
to  the  picture,  —  drawn  a  few  chickens,  or,  it  may  be,  a  nest  and  eggs. 
(The  primary  teacher  should  be  expert  in  the  use  of  the  crayon.)  The 
children  very  quickly  (associate  the  different  parts  of  the  picture  thus 
made)  tell  many  stories  in  their  own  child's  vocabulary,  thus  carrying  out 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  191 

the  teacher's  plan  for  the  development  of  ideas  first,  and  then  using  words 
in  naming  and  recalling  ideas.  As  the  children  tell  their  stories,  which, 
of  course,  consist  of  short,  simple  sentences,  the  teacher  writes  one  or  two 
sentences  on  the  board,  telling  the  children  what  she  has  written,  or 
what  she  has  written  says.  When  they  are  through  telling  stories,  point- 
ing to  the  first  sentence,  which  may  be  "  I  see  a  hen,"  she  will  ask  what 
that  says,  and  so  on  with  the  next,  and  usually  four  out  of  five  will  read 
what  each  sentence  says.  (Of  course,  the  teacher  has  given  the  written 
word  hen  until  she  has  drilled  each  child  upon  its  pronunciation,  and  has 
been  satisfied  that  each  child  could  speak  it  without  difficulty  or  hesita- 
tion ;  thus  teaching  the  phonic  analysis  and  synthesis  of  the  word  by 
pronouncing  at  first  slowhj  and  then  rapidly.) 

The  children  now  pass  to  their  seats,  and  take  their  slates  and  pencils 
and  copy  what  is  upon  the  board.  (The  teacher,  when  she  requires  the 
children  to  copy  the  sentences,  should  write  a  perfect  copy.)  The  inex- 
perienced teacher  will  find  that  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  employ  the  time  of 
the  children,  and,  at  the  same  time,  very  profitably.  The  copying  in- 
cludes penmanship,  spelling,  use  of  capital  letters,  and  punctuation  marks, 
and  even  more,  it  teaches  them  to  read  their  writing.  After  the  teacher 
has  written  upon  the  board  the  simple  stories  told  by  the  children,  she 
should  call  upon  each  child  to  select  a  sentence  upon  the  board,  and  then 
read  and  erase  it,  and  then  call  on  another  child.  This  is  an  intensifying 
exercise,  inasmuch  as  several  pupils  may  have  in  their  minds  the  very 
sentence  which  is  erased,  and  they  are  obliged  immediately  to  select  an- 
other which  in  its  turn  may  be  erased  by  the  next  child  called  on.  By 
calling  upon  the  brightest  pupils  first,  the  teacher  causes  the  dull  ones  to 
do  the  most  M'ork.  If  the  child  called  upon  cannot  read  the  sentence 
promptly,  another  child  is  called  upon  to  do  it,  and  he  selects  another 
sentence,  again  causing  the  dull  pupil  to  do  the  most  work,  and  as  use 
brightens  the  intellect,  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  the  ones  who  are 
the  dullest  at  first,  in  a  few  weeks  become  the  brightest.  After  the  sen- 
tences have  all  been  erased,  the  children  are  permitted  to  write  as  many 
stories  as  they  can  about  the  object  on  the  board,  and  you  may  rest 
assured  that  for  the  next  half-hour  the  children  will  give  the  teacher  no 
trouble  by  any  acts  of  disorder.  Because  there  is  an  intensifying  influ- 
ence created  upon  the  mind  of  the  child,  by  the  gradual  growth  of  the 
picture,  as  it  is  produced  by  what  seems  to  the  child  the  magic  art  of  the 
teacher,  which  is  not  exercised  by  the  presentation  of  an  entire  picture 
at  once. 

Q.    How  do  you  proceed  to  teach  the  "  idea  "  before  the  word  ? 

A.  It  is  a  law  of  mental  development,  with  which  it  is  dangerous  to 
trifle,  that  ideas  should  invariahly  precede  words.  It  should  also  be  a 
rule  of  practice  that  the  pupil  should  not  drop  a  word  until  as  many  of  the 


192  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

different  ideas  (of  which  the  word  may  be  used  as  recallers)  have  been 
developed  as  come  within  the  capacity  of  the  child's  comprehension.  Take 
the  word  case.  We  say  of  a  horse,  "he  is  in  good  or  bad  case  " ;  of  a  man, 
"he  is  a  hard  case";  of  a  question  at  law,  "it  is  a  difficult  case";  of  a 
word,  "  it  is  in  the  nominative  or  objective  case."  An  idea  should  not  be 
left  until  as  many  different  words  as  properly  come  within  the  capacity 
of  the  child  have  been  given  as  recallers  of  the  idea. 

Q.   When  would  you  teach  new  words? 

A.  The  teacher  should  not  attempt  to  develop  during  the  progress  of 
the  exercise  an  idea  which  was  named  by  any  word  occurring  in  the 
reading  lesson.  Such  development  should  invariably  be  performed  at  its 
proper  time ;  that  is,  previous  to  the  calling  of  the  class.  A  teacher  should 
never  do  for  a  pupil  that  which  he  is  competent  to  do  for  himself,  or  what 
one  of  his  classmates  can  do  properly,  if  permitted  to  make  an  effort.  A 
superintendent  should  so  train  his  teachers  that  the  teachers  will  not 
pronounce  a  word  for  a  pupil  during  the  class  exercise ;  or  even  give 
conception  of  the  right  inflection  and  true  rendering  of  the  thought  in- 
tended to  be  expressed  by  the  author,  until  each  member  of  the  class  has 
had  an  opportunity  to  give  his  conception  of  it. 

Q.   Have  you  a  further  test  of  grasping  thought  ? 

A.  At  the  close  of  the  exercise  the  pupils  are  expected  to  be  able  to 
close  their  books  and  give  an  intelligent  resume  of  what  they  have  read ; 
and,  if  called  upon,  to  substitute  equivalents  for  words  which  the  teacher 
indicates. 

Q.  Should  a  teacher  ever  pronounce  a  word  for  a  child  during  the 
reading  exercise,  or  give  any  conception  of  the  right  rendering  ? 

A.  Hence,  simply  speaking  words  promptly  by  the  class  is  not  con- 
sidered a  just  standard  lor  testing  the  quality  of  the  best  teaching ;  nor 
is  any  reading  considered  of  the  best  quality  which  falls  short  of  an  ability 
to  name  promptly  the  text  at  sight,  giving  the  eyes  thne  to  keep  suffi- 
ciently in  advance  of  the  utterance  of  the  words  so  that  the  mind  may 
grasp  the  thought,  and  thus  enable  the  pupil  to  give  a  proper  rendering 
of  it. 

Q.   What  is  the  best  standard  for  testing  the  quality  of  reading  ? 

A.  Reading  is  naming  at  sight  the  words  of  a  written  discourse  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  give  a  correct  rendering  of  the  thought  to  be  devel- 
oped or  recalled,  as  indicated  by  the  writer ;  and  no  exercise  in  reading 
is  considered  worthy  the  highest  commendation  in  which  there  has  been 
the  slightest  hesitation  in  the  utterance  of  words,  or  in  which  the  minds 
of  the  pupils  have  been  from  necessity  so  much  occupied  in  recognizing 
the  words  that  they  have  not  been  able  to  grasp  the  thought. 

Q.    In  what  way  are  pupils  drilled  on  misspelled  words  ? 

A.    The  teacher  while  inspecting  the  slates  also  takes  down  all  the 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  193 

words  she  finds  misspelled,  and  they  are  placed  upon  the  board  in  the 
morning-  before  school,  to  be  copied  by  the  entire  grade,  as  "  Busy  Work." 
These  words,  with  others  that  are  used  in  idea  and  thought-developing 
exercises,  are  also  used  in  an  exercise  testing  ability  to  pronounce  words 
at  sight.  The  children,  reading  and  removing  the  sentences  from  the 
board,  as  I  have  described,  do  not  in  this  instance  take  their  seats,  but 
turn  their  faces  from  the  board  while  the  teacher  puts  several  sentences 
on  it.  She  then  names  one  of  the  class,  who  turns  to  the  board,  and  is 
expected  to  read  one  of  the  sentences  instantly  in  the  order  indicated  by 
the  teacher,  who  changes  the  order  as  different  pupils  are  called  on.  An 
exercise  which  precedes  this  is  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  that  first 
described,  only  that,  instead  of  merely  pronouncing  the  words,  the  pupils 
tell  stories  about  them.  All  this  is  preparatory  to  reading  at  sight.  And 
here  let  me  repeat  (as  I  cannot  too  often),  the  teacher  adds  to  her  list  of 
the  vocabulary  of  the  grade  each  new  word  as  it  is  developed  by  the  grade. 
Observe,  I  do  not  say  to,  but  hy,  the  grade ;  for  the  work  is  done  by  the 
pupils,  not  the  teacher,  so  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  wasting  time  by 
going  over  work  unnecessarily. 

Q.  It  is  not  easy  to  obtain  supplementary  reading.  Please  tell  us  how 
we  may  optain  it. 

A.  Inasmuch  as  script  is  used  the  entire  first  year  in  Quincy,  up  to 
last  November  there  had  been  a  need  of  suitable  books  for  use  in  this 
grade;  and  though  several  highly  educated  persons  had  attempted  to  sup- 
ply them,  their  attempts  were  unsuccessful.  About  that  time,  it  was 
suggested  that  the  stories  told  by  the  C  primary  grade  in  their  written 
exercises  would  make  excellent  reading  lessons  for  the  D  primary  grade, 
and  the  idea  was  immediately  put  into  practice,  and  a  selection  of  the 
best  of  this  work  was  made.  By  the  aid  of  the  lithogram,  fifty  or  sixty 
copies  of  each  story  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  each  D  primary  teacher. 
This  I  deem  one  of  the  happy  thoughts  of  the  past  year.  You  will  see 
that  these  written  primers  furnish  a  most  valuable  method  for  introduc- 
ing a  sight-reading  exercise  into  this  grade. 

Q.   How  is  sight-reading  taught  ? 

A.  Before  a  sight  script  reading  exercise  (as  a  distinct  lesson)  is 
called,  the  teacher  makes  an  examination  of  the  lesson,  and  takes  down 
those  woi'ds  contained  in  it  not  previously  used  in  the  grade.  The  ideas 
they  are  intended  to  recall  are  developed  as  already  described.  A  page  of 
this  primer  is  sufficient  for  a  single  exercise.  From  this  time,  the  grade 
has  two  sight-reading  lessons  a  day.  Permit  me  to  remark  that  the  secret 
of  teaching  sight-reading  in  Quincy  is  that  no  word  is  considered  fully 
mastered  until  the  child  can  call  it  at  sight,  and  by  using  it  in  expressing 
a  thought,  showing  that  he  knows  its  value.  A  single  exercise  in  reading, 
or,  indeed,  anything,  is  continued  only  so  long  as  the  teacher  is  able  to 


104  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

keep  up  an  intense  interest  on  the  part  of  the  circle.  As  soon  as  the 
interest  begins  to  flag,  the  programme  is  changed.  With  a  proper  teacher 
in  charge,  inattention  or  indifference  is  considered  an  indication  yf  fatigue, 
and  a  variety  is  immediately  introduced.  Numerous  kindergarten  exer- 
cises are  used  for  these  changes  ;  brief  marches,  or  little  songs,  which  are 
within  the  comprehen'sion  of  the  class. 

Q.  What  are  the  other  pupils  doing?  AVhat  is  meant  by  "Busy 
Work"? 

A.  Although  it  does  not  necessarily  form  a  part  of  a  description  of 
language  lessons,  you  may  wish  to  know  what  the  rest  of  the  grade  are 
doing,  while  the  teacher  has  a  particular  circle  under  her  charge.  They 
are  kept  occupied  with  what  is  called  '•  Busy  Work  " ;  and  this  "  Busy 
Work  "  is  not  at  all  the  same  in  any  two  grades,  but  in  accordance  with 
the  ideas  and  capacity  of  the  teacher  in  charge.  The  "  Busy  Work  "  of  no 
two  days  is  likely  to  be  the  same,  as  there  are  so  many  kindergarten 
exercises  of  which  any  industrious  teacher  may  make  use.  This  "  Busy 
Work  "  is  always  of  such  a  character  that  the  children  are  allowed  all  the 
freedom  consistent  with  attention  to  the  work.  You  may  have  read  the 
anecdote  going  the  rounds,  of  an  old  teacher,  who,  when  visiting  Quincy, 
remarked,  "  Isn't  this  very  noisy  ?  "  and  was  answered,  "  Precisely,  mad- 
am ;  this  is  a  workshop,  not  a  funeral.  You  cannot  have  a  beehive  with- 
out a  buzz."  And  when  she  further  noticed  that  the  little  boy  in  plaid 
was  whispering  to  the  little  girl  in  white,  was  replied,  "  Quite  likely,  mad- 
am ;  we  can  readily  find  an  excuse  for  bright-eyed,  curly-headed,  rosy- 
cheeked  boys  who  will  whisper  to  little  girls  in  white ;  we  once  had  a  ten- 
dency in  that  direction  ourselves."  The  principal  difference  between  the 
work  in  language  of  the  D  and  C  grades  is  the  changing  from  script  to 
print ;  and  I  have  found  no  teacher  in  Quincy  who  has  any  definite  idea 
how  the  child  comes  in  possession  of  the  ability  to  read  printed  senten- 
ces, and  of  the  names  of  the  letters.  Yet,  although  all  the  spelling  in 
Quincy  is  phonetic,  and  the  names  of  the  letters  are  never  used,  the 
children  know  them  as  soon  as  the  second  year.  Having  thus  given  you 
a  description  of  the  language  lessons  for  the  first  year,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary for  me  to  say  that  the  work  of  each  succeeding  grade  is  the  same  in 
principle,  with  such  additions  to  methods  and  omissions  of  methods  as  the 
intellectual  strength  and  mental  development  of  the  grade  demand. 

Q.  You  use  various  readers  in  the  primary  department.  How  do  yoa 
proceed  to  make  the  children  familiar  with  new  words  ? 

A.  In  the  C  primary  grade  the  printed  reader  is  introduced.  As 
before  stated,  the  child  is  already  able  to  recognize  the  printed  word  at 
sight,  to  the  extent  of  the  vocabulary  he  has  acquired.  Daily  drills  in 
phonic  analysis  have  now  fitted  him  to  pronounce  words  by  the  aid  of 
study.     The  teacher  has  a  list  of  the  words  in  the  vocabulary  the  grade 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  195 

has  thus  far  acquired.  In  order  to  lessen  the  labor  of  the  teacher,  a 
resume  of  the  vocabulary  of  a  large  number  of  the  first  readers,  most 
highly  prized,  that  are  in  use  in  the  schools.  You  will  be  astonished 
when  I  tell  you  that  this  resume  only  covers  between  three  and  four 
pages  of  an  octavo  leaf.  The  words  are  arranged  phonetically,  and,  as 
near  as  possible,  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence  in  the  readers.  You 
will  all  perceive  that  when  the  teacher  has  developed  the  use  of  this  list 
of  words,  and  fixed  in  the  mind  of  the  grade  their  forms,  the  members  of 
the  grade  are  prepared  to  read  at  sight,  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  all 
the  lessons  found  in  the  entire  series  covered  b}^  the  phonetic  resume.  All 
the  devices  used  in  the  D  grade  primary  teaching  of  language  are  con- 
tinued in  the  C  grade,  the  main  difference  being  the  grade  of  thought 
developed:  hence,  a  higher  grade  of  pictures,  suitable  to  suggest  such 
a  thought,  is  needed.  More  importance  is  placed  upon  the  child's  ability 
to  frame  sentences  containing  numerous  word  and  phrase  adjunct  ele- 
ments than  has  been  in  the  D  grade  work.  In  fact,  the  children  in  the 
C  grade  in  Quincy,  during  the  last  four  months  of  the  work  of  the  grade, 
find  little  or  no  difficulty  in  expressing  thoughts,  both  orally  and  with 
the  pen,  by  the  use  of  sentences  involving  not  only  the  use  of  word  and 
phrase,\)\x.t  also  sentence  adjuncts.  This  ability  is  considered  one  of  the 
best  evidences  of  the  highest  order  of  work  in  the  D  and  C  grades  in 
language  teaching,  provided  the  vocabulary  is  not  above  the  grade  work. 
In  this  grade  work  there  is  introduced  another  method  in  testing  the 
ability  of  the  child  to  write  words  correctly. 

Q.  Do  you  permit  pupils  to  study  their  reading  lessons  before  recita- 
tion? 

A.  When  the  hour  for  sight-reading  has  come,  and  the  child  is  placed 
in  position,  the  teacher  names  a  pupil,  who  steps  to  the  cupboard,  and 
when  the  teacher  names  the  set  of  books  she  wishes  used,  the  monitor 
passes  a  book  to  each  member  of  the  class.  The  books  are  in  sets  of  twen- 
ty-five, for  the  reason  that  experience  has  taught  them  that  is  the  number 
w^hich  can  be  profitably  engaged  in  this  exercise  at  one  time.  The  teacher 
then  names  the  page  on  which  the  lesson  which  she  has  selected  for  the 
exercise  may  be  found ;  and  for  the  sight-reading  of  which  she  has  pre- 
pared the  class,  by  developing  each  word  contained  in  the  lesson  not 
previously  within  the  vocabulary  of  each  member  of  the  class.  The  books 
are  opened,  and  the  teacher  names  a  pupil,  who  at  once  commences  read> 
ing,  and  continues  to  read  until  the  teacher,  for  some  good  reason,  desires 
another  to  take  his  place.  If  a  pupil  hesitates  in  naming  a  word  in- 
stantly, another  pupil  is  named,  who  commences  where  the  previous  one 
commenced.  If  any  pupil  thinks  that  a  word  has  been  miscalled,  or  that 
the  readmg  has  not  conveyed  the  thought  intended  by  the  writer,  up  goes 
his  hand,  and,  as  soon  as  the  teacher  deems  it  advisable,  she  names  the 


196  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

owner  of  one  of  the  "  hands  up,"  who  tries  his  luck,  but  you  may  rest 
assured  that  very  soon  the  thought  is  brought  out,  and  the  exercise 
goes  forward.  If  the  class  cannot  agree  in  regard  to  the  thought  the 
author  intended  to  express,  the  utmost  freedom  is  allowed  the  class  in 
discussing  the  matter  among  themselves.  If  they  do  not  finally  agree, 
a  note  is  made  upon  the  board,  and  the  subject  is  passed  for  some  future 
occasion,  giving  the  pupils  ample  opportunity  to  gather,  from  any  source 
they  may,  such  information  as  will  furnish  evidence  to  settle  the  point  of 
difference.  In  the  meantime,  during  the  exercise,  the  teacher  has  made 
a  note  of  all  the  words  upon  which  any  member  of  the  class  has  hesitated, 
which  words  go  into  the  list  of  very  difficult  words  for  future  development. 
After  continuing  the  exercise  the  proper  length  of  time,  the  books  are 
taken  up,  replaced  in  their  case  in  the  cupboard,  and  the  class  permitted 
to  write  a  resume  of  the  reading  lesson,  which  is  examined  by  the  teacher, 
and  the  members  of  th^  class  credited  according  to  their  deserts,  by  the 
aid  of  the  most  beautiful  and  ingenious  device  I  have  ever  seen,  and 
which  I  regret  not  having  time  to  describe.  I  would  also  say,  that  while 
examining  the  resume,  the  teacher  makes  a  note  of  each  word  misspelled, 
and  writes  it  on  the  board  to  be  copied  by  the  class.  Sometimes  an  oral 
exercise  is  used  in  place  of  the  written  one,  but  this  is  seldom  done,  it  not 
being  considered  a  good  test,  or  one  worthy  to  be  relied  on,  but  is  used 
rather  as  an  exercise  in  oral  expression. 

There  are  fourteen  sets  of  books  belonging  to  the  C  primary  gTades, 
nearly  all  of  which  are  read  through  by  each  grade  in  the  course  of  a 
year.  So,  you  see,  the  children  of  this  grade  have  a  great  deal  of  sight- 
reading  in  the  course  of  the  year,  all  of  which  is  fresh  when  it  comes  into 
their  hands ;  and  the  condition  of  the  class,  when  it  is  called  upon  to 
read,  very  much  resembles  that  of  a  healthy  child  who  has  breakfasted  at 
six,  and  is  invited  to  sit  down  to  a  well-loaded  table  at  noon,  without 
having  had  his  appetite  spoiled  in  the  interim  by  a  piece  of  pie  or  cake ; 
and,  I  must  here  remark,  that  I  never  saw  children  at  a  picnic,  after  hav- 
ing gone  beyond  their  usual  hour  of  eating,  show  greater  enjoyment  when 
refreshments  were  finally  served,  or  their  eyes  sparkle  more  brightly  when 
the  confectionery  came,  than  those  of  this  class  when  they  found  the  les- 
son they  were  to  read  was  such  a  story  as  most  children  delight  in  reading. 
In  fact,  I  never  knew  how  interested  children  of  seven  or  eight  years  of 
age  could  become  in  healthful  reading,  until  practised  in  Quincy  schools ; 
or  how  truthful  the  remark  I  have  often  made,  "  that  the  best  example  in 
reading  which  can  be  given  a  person  to  study  is  the  animated  conversa- 
tion of  an  intelligent  child  of  seven,  eight,  or  nine  years,  when  talking 
upon  a  subject  with  which  he  is  familiar,  and  which  comes  within  the 
range  of  his  mental  development  and  vocabulary."  Children  in  Quincy 
read  as  they  talk,  and  I  have  often  tried  the  experiment  of  turning  my 


QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK.  I97 

back  to  a  class,  in  order  to  know  if  I  could  tell  by  the  .tones  of  the  voice 
whether  they  were  reading  or  talking,  and  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  I 
have  not  been  able  to  tell. 

Q.   Have  you  any  other  device  of  teaching  reading  ? 

A.  A  good  way  to  teach  is  by  writing  a  small  word,  and  then  causing 
the  pupils  to  trace  it  with  their  fingers  in  the  air.  Progress  should  be  so 
slowly  and  patiently  made  that  the  child  would  never  imagine  that  it  was 
doing  a  difficult  thing.  From  the  start  a  child  should  never  be  allowed 
to  do  a  thing  wrong.  As  we  learn  to  do  a  thing  by  doing  it,  a  child  could 
only  be  taught  to  do  a  thing  correctly  by  never  being  allowed  to  do  it 
wrong.  Care  should  enter  into  this  work,  and  praise  should  be  judiciously 
bestowed. 

Q.  Some  teachers,  in  teaching  the  child  to  read,  begin  with  a  draw- 
ing.    Do  you  approve  of  it? 

A.  No.  Any  method  that  makes  drawing  precede  the  idea  is  wrong. 
Let  the  pupils  close  their  eyes,  and  see  the  word  in  their  minds. 

Q.   What  words  should  first  be  taught  ? 

A.  The  favorite  words  of  the  child  should  be  used.  The  first  book 
should  be  printed  in  the  child's  own  idiom. 

Q.    What  is  the  limit  of  a  child's  vocabulary  ? 

A.  The  number  of  words  that  the  child  can  recall  is  the  definite  boun- 
dary of  his  vocabulary.     Learning  to  read  is  learning  a  vocabulary. 

Q.  How  do  you  manage  to  keep  up  an  interest  in  reading,  with 
beginners  ? 

A.  Keep  up  an  appetite  for  a  neio  word ;  so  work  that  every  face  will 
brighten  up  when  you  say,  "  a  new  ivord."  Let  a  charm  hang  around  the 
new  word,  and  when  you  say,  "  Children,  we  are  going  to  have  sl  new  word 
to-day,  and  I  want  you, to  find  it,  and  I  will  introduce  it  to  you.  It  is  a 
stranger,  and  we  want  to  get  acquainted  with  it." 

Q.  Some  teachers  say  they  cannot  teach  children  to  read  without  com- 
bining the  use  of  the  chart  with  the  blackboard. 

A.  Blackboard  is  better  than  the  chart.  Chalk  and  talk,  —  a  limited 
use  of  both.  A  skilful  teacher  needs  no  chart.  Use  script  for  five  months. 
Wlien  to  leave  ofP  script  and  take  up  the  chart  depends  upon  the  ability 
of  the  child  and  the  skill  of  the  teacher.  If  a  teacher  cannot  succeed  with 
the  blackboard  in  teaching  script,  let  her  take  chalk  and  print. 

Q.    About  how  much  reading  would  you  have  from  the  blackboard  ? 

A.  Work  slowly,  and  have  the  First  Reader  read  nearly  through  on 
the  board  before  the  book  is  given.  By  doing  this  we  find  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult for  them  to  keep  the  place.  In  the  reading  class,  thought-analysis 
should  be  the  most  prominent  feature. 

Q.   Why  do  you  prefer  the  script  in  teaching  the  child  to  read  ? 

A.    Script  is  the  method  of  economy.     The  child  not  only  gets  the 


198  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

thought,  but  it  enables  him  to  give  the  thought ;  the  child  gets  the  thought, 
and  gives  it  right  back  to  you.     This  is  its  excellency. 

Q.    How  would  you  change  from  script  to  print  ? 

A.  Fill  up  the  board  with  a  nice  little  lesson ;  let  them  read  it.  During 
their  absence  change  from  scri]3t  to  print.  Request  them  to  read  it. 
They  will  do  it  immediately.  They  will  see  a  resemblance.  I  will  first 
explain  why  we  begin  with  script.  First,  because  you  can  work  more 
rapidly  with  script  than  print;  second,  because  the  child  works  from  the 
blackboard,  combining  reading  with  spelling  and  composition  at  the  same 
time.  We  keep  the  pupil  at  script,  say  for  five  months,  and  the  change 
to  print  is  then  made  with  ease.  The  way  it  is  done  is  this  :  we  write 
something  on  the  blackboard,  and  the  children  read  it  and  copy  it  on  their 
slates.  After  they  go  home  it  is  rubbed  off  from  the  board,  and  the  same 
matter  is  printed  by  the  teacher.  On  the  return  of  the  children,  they  read 
the  print  Avith  very  little  hesitation  ;  they  learn  to  read  the  print  in  a  day 
or  two.  Children  don't  see  differences  like  grown  people  ;  they  see  like 
nesses  in  things  quicker  than  older  folks. 

Q.    Does  the  change  from  script  to  print  discourage  the  child  ? 

A.  Having  progressed  so  far,  a  change  is  made  from  script  to  print, 
but  the  change  is  effected  under  such  circumstances  that  the  pupil  don't 
notice  it.  When  they  have  learned  to  read  I  give  them  plenty  of  reading 
matter,  saj'"  six  or  eight  different  first  readers,  so  that  the  result  of  tlieir 
studies  will  be  entirely  devoid  of  the  mechanism  that  characterizes  the 
studies  of  the  public-school  child.  I  would  not  have  them  read  over  and 
over  again  the  same  book,  as  is  the  case  in  your  public  school  to-day. 

Q.    Why  not  begin  to  teach  a  child  the  sounds  of  the  letters? 

A.  If  we  take  in  a  part  of  the  thing,  it  weakens  the  power  to  see  or 
understand  the  whole. 

Q.    Why  do  you  use  the  word  method  ? 

A.  Because  it  is  the  natural  method ;  the  sentence  method  is  also  the 
natural  method ;  the  script  method  is  economical,  because  while  you  teach 
the  script,  you  are  teaching  penmanship,  sj)elling,  and  reading.  Use  all 
three  methods ;  in  them  you  get  the  strength  of  the  bundle  of  twigs. 

Q.  Some  teachers  object  to  the  sentence  method  because  the  thought 
is  composed  of  words,  violating  this  principle,  "  Teach  one  thing  at  a 
time." 

A.  A  thought  is  a  unit  of  mental  action.  A  sentence  is  the  unit  of 
language  expressed. 

Q.    When  would  you  take  up  the  sentence  in  reading  ? 

A.  When  eight  or  ten  words  have  been  learned  we  have  the  founda- 
tion for  several  sentences. 

Q.  Would  you  require  teachers  to  put  reading  books  into  the  hands  of 
beginners  ? 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  I99 

A.  The  best  teachers  of  reading  do  not  put  books  into  the  hands  of 
the  beginner.  They  show  an  object  to  the  child,  and  write  its  name  on 
the  blackboard.  The  pupil  learns,  after  a  practical  drill  of  this  kind,  that 
ivords  are  but  names ;  when  this  stage  is  reached  it  is  proper  to  give  him 
a  book,  but  still  the  blackboard  is  to  be  steadily  and  methodically  used. 
This  is  a  great  advance  upon  the  old  method  of  spelling  out  the  words. 
Let  the  words  learned  each  day  remain  on  the  board,  and  be  put  on  the 
slates  while  in  their  seats ;  it  is  not  expected  that  young  children  should 
study  —  that  must  be  learned.  1  would  group  ten  together,  according  to 
their  mental  calibre,  and  use  the  blackboard  till  they  can  read  without 
difficulty. 

Q.    AVould  you  call  upon  pupils  to  read  round  by  turns  ? 

A.   But  very  little  attention  should  be  given  to  such  an  exercise. 

Q.    What  is  your  opinion  of  silent  reading? 

A.  I  favor  it.  A  very  profitable  and  pleasant  exercise.  I  would  let 
them  read  silently  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  take  their  books  away, 
and  question  the  class  in  regard  to  what  they  had  read ;  sometimes  I 
would  request  them  to  reproduce  the  thought  orally,  at  other  times  I 
would  have  a  written  reproduction. 

Q.    What  is  the  most  essential  point  in  primary  reading  ? 

A.  The  most  essential  point  in  primary  reading  is  to  lead  the  pupil  to 
see  and  understand  the  thought  before  giving  expression  to  it. 

Q.   Do  you  consider  that  getting  the  thought  is  reading  ? 

A.  Yes;  you  cannot  read  well  orally  without  getting  the  thought, 
and  so  the  first  work  is  to  get  the  thought ;  this  is  done  by  silent  reading. 
Gaining  the  thought  is  the  first  work ;  you  must  first  gain  money  before 
you  can  use  it.     Let  that  be  your  sun  by  day,  and  your  moon  by  night. 

Q.  Do  you  not  think  that  too  little  attention  is  given  to  thought 
reading  ? 

A.  All  reading  should  evolve  thought;  every  lesson  should  evolve 
thought ;  every  lesson  should  be  reproduced ;  giving  back  the  thought  is 
a  part  of  the  lesson. 

Q.   Can  thought  and  expression  be  divorced  in  reading  ? 

A.  Thought  training,  and  expression  training  go  hand  in  hand ;  the 
expression  measures  the  power  and  the  intensity  of  the  thought. 

Q.  Is  not  the  reading  lesson  the  most  fertile  field  for  the  development 
of  thought  and  expression  ? 

A.  The  reading  lesson  is  one  of  the  best  exercises  in  school.  It  in- 
cludes so  much  matter  —  frequently  a  lesson  contains  something  on 
history,  geography,  biography,  manners,  and  morals  —  a  good  opportunity 
is  afforded  for  language  development. 

Q.  Which  should  receive  the  more  attention  in  reading,  the  mterpre- 
tation  or  the  expression  of  the  thought  ? 


200  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

A.  More  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  interpretation  than  to  the  ex- 
pression of  the  thought.  A  pleasant  and  profitable  exercise  is  silent 
reading  of  the  lesson  by  the  pupils,  after  which  the  teacher  questions  the 
pupils  about  what  they  have  read.  One  of  the  most  promising  results 
which  I  find  is  the  steadily  increasing  power  of  children  to  study,  to  con- 
centrate their  minds  upon,  and  to  master  the  thoughts  that  are  awakened. 
The  love  for  books  and  reading  is  increasing  with  rapid  strides.  Books 
should  not  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  little  ones,  until  they  are  ready 
and  eager  to  use  them,  and  then  only  when  they  bring  pleasure  to  the 
readers,  thus  keeping  the  appetite  for  reading  keen  and  active.  The 
large  number  of  books  (in  sets  of  twenty-five),  owned  by  the  town, 
.forms  a  circulating  library,  furnishing  a  great  amount  of  excellent  read- 
ing.    Good  reading  is  one  of  the  direct  results  of  good  teaching. 

Q.   Why  do  so  many  children  read  unnaturally  ? 

A.  We  destroy  naturalness,  because  the  child's  attention  is  diverted 
from  the  whole  to  the  part.  The  very  struggle  of  the  children  shows  the 
lack  of  originality;  shows  that  nothing  is  coming  from  the  mind  but 
mechanical  association,  not  sense  association. 

Q.  How  would  you  prevent  hesitation  and  unnatural  tones  in  read- 
ing? 

A.  Pupils  will  not  hesitate  and  read  in  unnatural  tones,  if  they  are 
taught  properly :  these  are  acquired.  In  order  to  prevent  it,  let  the  pupils 
read  the  sentence  through  silently,  before  giving  oral  expression  to  it.  The 
understanding  of  the  thought  is  the  main  feature.  By  this  plan,  children 
will  not  hesitate  in  reading,  nor  use  unnatural  tones.  In  the  lowest  pri- 
mary grades,  sight  reading  shouM  receive  close  attention. 

Q.  Should  a  teacher  read  a  sentence,  giving  the  proper  emphasis,  for 
.the  benefit  of  the  child  ? 

A.  Emphasizing  for  a  child  is  not  development.  If  the  child  does  not 
see  the  thought,  develop  it.  If  he  has  the  thought  in  his  mind,  the  thought 
will  control  the  emphasis.  If  the  teacher  reads  the  sentence,  she  gets  the 
benefit,  not  the  child.  Never  teach  pupils  to  imitate  your  voice  or  expres- 
sion in  reading.  Let  him  develop  himself,  in  order  that  his  efforts  may  have 
some  individuality.    If  you  would  learn  to  read,  listen  to  the  child's  readmg. 

Q.   Why  do  the  children  give  the  wrong  emphasis  ? 

A.  It  is  evident  that  they  do  not  understand  what  they  read.  The 
teacher  should  so  question  the  pupils  that  they  may  see  their  faults ;  but 
not  tell  them. 

Q.  How  would  you  proceed  to  examine  the  first  five  months'  work  in 
reading  ? 

A.  Examine  the  pupils  from  the  blackboard,  using  the  vocabulary 
presented  by  the  teacher,  which  the  pupils  have  learned.  Second  five 
months  in  very  short,  easy,  printed  sentences. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  •  201 

Q.  How  would  you  proceed  to  examine  pupils  in  the  first  and  second 
readers  ? 

A.  By  requiring  them  to  read  from  readers  which  the  pupils  have 
never  seen. 

Q.   How  should  a  superintendent  examine  a  class  in  primary  reading? 

A.  The  teacher  should  know  how  many  words  she  has  taught ;  she 
should  keep  a  list  of  them  for  the  examiner,  who  should  test  the  child's 
idiom. 

Q.   What  should  be  the  test  of  reading  in  examinations  ? 

A.  First,  to  be  able  to  read  without  hesitation ;  second,  to  be  able  to 
get  the  thought ;  third,  to  be  able  to  express  it ;  fourth,  to  be  able  to  repro- 
duce the  thought ;  fifth,  to  be  able  to  give  a  reason  for  the  use  of  capital 
letters  and  punctuation  marks. 

Q.  What  should  be  the  standard  of  examination  of  reading  in  the 
lowest  primary  classes  ? 

A.  The  habit  and  power  of  getting  thought  before  it  is  given  (expressed 
orally) ;  the  habit  of  giving  the  thought  just  as  the  readers  should  talk. 

Q.    How  do  you  foster  a  love  for  reading  ? 

A.  A  love  for  reading  is  fostered  by  the  teacher,  who  takes  some 
standard  book  into  the  school-room,  and  reads  from  it  and  talks  about  it 
until  "  each  child  is  full  of  enthusiasm  concerning  it,  and  all  are  anxious 
to  read  the  book  at  their  homes."  Another  is  commenced  in  the  same 
way,  and  the  interest  increases  ;  thus  a  love  for  good  reading  is  created. 

Q.   How  does  the  child  learn  new  words  ? 

A.  By  unconscious  analysis  he  makes  the  word  the  same  as  he  makes 
everything,  or  tries  to  make  everything. 

Q.  Do  you  say  that  a  child  should  write  a  legible  hand  at  the  end  of 
the  first  year  in  school  ? 

A.  Yes ;  this  may  be  done  through  persistent  work.  At  the  end  of 
the  second  year  every  child  should  write  a  beautiful  and  rapid  hand,  using 
pen  and  ink. 

Q.  Should  the  teacher,  from  the  first,  give  attention  to  technical 
writing  ? 

A.  Technical  writing  should  be  taught  from  the  first,  beginning  with 
the  letter  "  i." 

Q.   Do  the  children  get  sufficient  reading-matter  ? 

A.  The  amount  of  reading  which  can  be  disposed  of  during  a  year  in 
a  good  primary  school  is  amazing.  Such  books  as  these  are  simply 
devoured  by  children  who  have  hitherto  been  starved  so  far  as  their  fancy 
and  their  imagination  are  concerned.  If  any  one  cares  to  test  practically 
how  strong  the  interest  of  children  who  are  thus  taught  really  is,  he  has 
only  to  buy  a  dozen  picture-books,  or,  indeed,  story-books  of  any  kind, 
go  to  some  primary  school  where  this  system  is  in  successful  operation, 


202  •  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

and  tell  the  children  that  he  has  brought  them  something  new  to  read. 
He  will  probably  be  satisfied  that  there  is  no  lack  of  eagerness  about 
him,  and  the  little  people  know  quite  well  what  they  want. 

Q.    Where  do  you  obtain  sufficient  supplementary  reading  ? 

A.  From  juvenile  magazines,  reading-books,  and  selections  from  the 
daily  and  weekly  press. 

Q.   Would  you  have  as  much  oral  reading  as  some  teachers  do  ? 

A.  Gret  at  what  is  meant  first,  and  the  (expression  will  follow  as  a 
matter  of  course. 

Q.   Should  any  elocutionary  drill  be  given  ? 

A.  I  don't  believe  in  this  so-called  elocution.  There  should  be  no 
reading  by  the  teacher  to  instruct  the  puj^il  in  pauses,  emphasis,  etc.  The 
boy  should  be  made  to  read  it  himself,  so  that  you  can  get  at  his  thought. 
Reading  is  a  means  of  stud}',  and  the  getting  of  thought  by  means  of 
words.  Any  training  that  teaches  words,  and  not  thought,  is  mischievous. 
The  teacher  discovers  what  is  in  the  mind  of  the  child  by  making  him 
read  the  book  himself.  If  the  teacher  does  it  for  him,  she  does  the  think- 
ing, and  the  boy  imitates  the  tone  of  the  voice,  and  when  he  in  turn  reads, 
you  cannot  tell  whether  he  has  got  the  thought  or  not.  Thought  is  im- 
pression, and  reading  aloud  is  expression.  I  would  have  more  than  one 
text-book ;  there  ought  to  be  several  very  easy  readers,  instead  of  having 
one  book  which  the  boy  learns  by  heart.  In  Boston  we  have  several  sets 
of  primary  readers,  and  when  one  school  gets  through  with  its  set,  it  ex- 
changes with  another  school,  and  thus  the  children  have  new  reading 
matter  all  tlie  time.  AV^e  make  good  readers  ip  three  years,  and  finish 
the  instruction  in  reading,  as  reading,  in  that  time.  That  is  a  strong 
statement,  but  it  is  true. 

Q.   Are  the  readers  properly  graded  ? 

A.  The  change  from  the  First  to  the  Second  is  too  great ;  the  child 
has  gone  out  of  his  idiom  in  the  Second. 

A  Conversational  Reading  Exercise. 

"  A  quotation ;  somebody  else  wrote  it."  "  Anybody  know  who  wrote 
it?"  Nobody  did.  "Find  out  at  the  library."  Again,  reverting  to  the 
main  subject :  "  Our  ships  at  Quincy  don't  come  up  to  Mr.  Wilson's  store. 
How  is  it  that  these  boats  do,  in  Holland,  come  to  the  store  doors  to  un- 
load?" "Canals;  the  streets  are  canals."  "  Any  other  place  in  Europe 
where  the  streets  are  water  ?  "  Boy  locates  Venice  on  map,  and  makes  a 
dot  for  it.  His  neighbor  makes  his  dot  for  it  at  Sicily.  "  How  many," 
pointing  to  this  last,  "  think  this  is  right?  "  Nobody  rises.  "  How  many 
don't  know  ?  "  Three  or  four  rise,  not  in  the  least  ashamed  to  be  igno- 
rant, but  evidently  "  wanting  to  know."    The  majority  of  the  class,  how- 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  203 

ever,  rose  to  the  opinion  tliat  the  first  draughtsman  had  put  his  Venice  in 
the  right  place ;  and  the  second  one,  thus  corrected,  but  not  snubbed, 
made  his  repairs  accordingly.  "  What  should  we  see  people  walking  on, 
in  Holland?"  "Stilts."  "No;  that's  in  Sweden,"  says  a  class  critic. 
"  Wooden  shoes."  "  Any  other  place  in  Europe  where  the  people  wear 
wooden  shoes?"  "Constantinople."  "Russia."  ^^ French  peasants," 
"Any  part  of  our  country?"      'i There  are  boots,"  said  slowly  a  junior 

Emerson,  "  in  Mr. 's  store  window,  with  wooden  soles  about  an  inch 

and  a  half  thick."  Finally,  it  was  brought  out  that  in  Canada  you  could 
still  see  and  hear  wooden  shoes  among  the  French  farmers  around 
Quebec. 

It  was  not  easy  to  leave  this  class  for  the  history  lesson,  but  time  was 
flying,  and  in  Miss  Dearborn's  room  already  Columbus  was  making  his 
voyages  across  the  Atlantic.  The  little  girl  at  the  blackboard  dropped 
her  voice,  as  the  visitor  entered,  but  was  promptly  reminded  by  the  teach- 
er's "  I  can't  hear  a  word  you  say "  to  take  up  the  narrative  in  a  clear 
voice.  In  this  room,  another  earth-map  of  North  America  lay  on  the  blue- 
board,  but  America  was  discovered  (this  being  an  older  class)  by  the 
blackboard  above.  Columbus  sailed  out  into  space,  and  the  islands  were 
put  in  "  as  he  sailed,"  or  rather  when  he  came  up  to  them,  the  track  of 
each  voyage  drawn  across  the  Atlantic.  This  was  after  England  and 
Spain  had  been  put  in  for  the  Genoese  voyager,  and  after  Queen  Isabella 
had  sold  her  jewels,  to  the  approval  of  the  class.  "  A  priest  thought  con- 
siderable of  Columbus,  and  he  got  a  part  of  the  money  for  him,  and  the 
Queen  gave  the  other  part."  Palos  is  located,  and  the  date  of  the  first 
voyage  written  there.  "  Then  he  sees  the  Canary  Islands."  "  I  don't  see 
them,"  said  the  teacher  :  so  they  are  dotted  into  place.  "What  was  Co- 
lumbus doing  when  he  stopped  there  ?  "  "  Repairing  his  ships."  "  What 
date  do  we  want  all  along  here  ?  "  So  the  sailor  took  her  to  San  Salvador, 
and  writes  October ;  takes  her  from  there,  goes  on  to  Hayti.  "  Did  he 
call  it  Hayti  ?  "  "  No ;  Hispaniola ;  "  and  brings  him  back  to  Spain  by  a 
chalk  sail.  "  What  year?  "  "  Early  in  1493."  Here  the  superintendent, 
Mr.  Parker,  comes  in  and  looks  on,  but  says  nothing.  Columbus  gets  his 
reception  in  Spain,  Indians  and  all,  and  is  taken  out  again  to  San  Domin- 
go, while  the  class  discovers  Jamaica,  and  the  chalk  voyager  marks  it  in 
place,  and  dates  it.  "  Stays  about  here  till  1496."  On  his  third  voyage, 
the  Cape  Verde  Islands  are  discovered  in  the  track  of  the  chalk  pencil. 
"  Why  Verde  ?  What  verd  have  we  in  our  names  ?  "  "  "  Vermont."  By 
this  time  a  party  of  earth-workers  were  putting  in  the  islands  on  the 
earth-map,  following  the  instructions  from  the  little  leader  at  the  board. 

Not  all  history  can  be  taught  in  this  way,  but  that  of  the  United  States, 
especially,  gives  a  good  field  for  it.  Even  in  political  history  of  the  Old 
World,  what  life  and  action  may  be  given  to  the  details,  for  instance,  of 


204  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

eventful  wars  that  have  changed  political  boundaries ;  what  interest  to 
the  character  and  civilization  of  any  people,  to  follow  out,  by  the  earth- 
maps,  and  by  blackboard  lines,  the  marches  of  contending  armies,  or  the 
local  peculiarities  of  a  nation  that  come  of  its  frontiers,  its  access  to  neigh- 
bors, and  spirit  towards  neighboring  States,  and  its  commercial  opportu- 
nities !  The  earth  and  chalk  empires  can  gro\^  and  spread,  and  shrink 
and  fall,  by  means  of  these  pictures  under  the  fingers  of  the  little  work- 
ers, and  even  old  Cadmus,  "  bringing  letters  into  Greece,"  will  not  seem 
so  much  connected  with  the  postal  service  as  he  now  does,  when  the  chil- 
dren can  follow  his  voyage,  and  fix  the  rich  country  he  came  from. 

Going  into  the  next  room  for  the  language  lessons,  I  found  an  arith- 
metic class,  one  of  the  primaries,  just  finishing  its  work,  being  delayed  a 
few  minutes  by  some  questions  that  the  superintendent,  Mr.  Parker,  had 
been  asking.  I  could  not  judge  of  this  exercise,  therefore ;  but  it  was 
evidently  not  so  mechanical  as  the  New  York  schools,  nor  had  it  such 
lightning  calculators.  The  points  were  brought  out  that  you  couldn't 
divide  minutes  by  apples,  even  if  you  should  succeed  in  eatmg  fifty-two 
apples  in  a  day;  and  the  lesson  was  kept  well  down  to  numbers  simple. 
So  far  as  I  could  see,  the  reason  was  at  work  quite  as  much  as  the  rule. 
Is  considered  of  great  importance,  as  quickening  observation  out  of  school 
and  expression  in  class.  There  were  quite  young  children  in  the  fifth 
primary.  The  talk  was  about  the  cow.  A  child  starts  up :  "  /  would  call 
the  cow  an  animal."  Another:  "We  would  call  the  cow  an  animal." 
"  The  cow  is  an  animal."  "  Every  cow  is  an  animal."  "  The  cow  is  a 
tame  animal."  "  The  cow  is  a  domestic  animal ;  "  and  so  on,  each  child 
making  a  new  sentence,  and  all  enjoying  the  rapid  game  of  changing  sen- 
tences. Teacher:  "  We  will  write  the  name  of  the  cow.  Is  this  right ? " 
putting  a  small  "  t,"  a  small  "  c,"  and  an  interrogation  mark.  "  Xo  ;  we 
are  not  asking  a  question,  we  are  telling  something ;  we  don't  want  that 
mark."     "  What  then,  this  M  '  ?  "     "  No ;  only  a  period." 

Also  directed,  she  writes  a  capital  "  T  "  and  "  C."  "  AVhat  is  a  capital  ?  " 
"A  head  letter."  Now,  we  shaU  write  down  all  that  we  can  recollect 
about  the  cow.  "What  does  recollect  mean?"  "To  bring  together 
again."  First  we  shall  write  the  color.  "What  is  the  color  of  your 
cow  ?  "  to  a  small  girl,  who  immediately  responded  that  the  color  of  her 
cow  was  pure  white.  Teacher  writes  "  white  "  at  edge  of  board,  making 
"whi"  with  the  "te"  on  next  line,  but  is  reminded  by  the  class  that 
it  cannot  be  divided,  no  more  than  and  can.  "What  shall  I  do,  then?" 
"  Leave  the  space,  if  there  isn't  room  for  it  all,  and  put  it  all  in  the  line 
below."  Then  again  the  cow  was  tossed  from  bench  to  bench.  "  The 
color  of  my  cow  is  clear  black."  "  My  cow  is  pale  red  and  white."  "  The 
cow  I  saw  this  morning  was  black  and  white."  "  That  cow  is  black." 
"Is  the  color  of  your  cow  red?"     "The  cow  I  had  was  brown."     "Is 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  205 

your  cow  tan,  like  mine  ?  "  "  Why  don't  I  call  that  horse  a  cow  ?  "  This 
was  the  turn  for  a  new  series  of  observations.  "  You  can  tell  it  by  the 
noise  it  makes."  "  A  horse  hasn't  got  any  horns.  It  hasn't  any  bag." 
"  You  can  tell  it  by  the  hoofs."  "  The  cow's  hoofs  are  split."  "  Did  you 
ever  notice  how  funny  the  cow's  hoofs  look?"  "My  cow  has  cloven  feet 
—  cloven  means  split.'"  "The  cow's  hoofs  have  the  same  substance  as 
our  finger  nails."  "  Cow's  hoofs  always  cover  their  toes."  "  My  cow's 
hoofs  are  not  perfectly  round."  "All  animals  have  split  hoofs  except  the 
horse  "  was  one  contribution  from  a  boy  who  hadn't  got  his  summary 
quite  clear.  Instantly  there  was  a  chorus,  "  A  dog  I  A  dog  has  no 
hoofs."  "  A  cat."  "  A  rabbit  hasn't  any."  "  A  mouse."  "  A  pig."  "  A 
pig  has  hoofs."  So  the  teacher  got  out  the  picture  of  a  pig,  to  satisfy  the 
demand,  holding  up  successively  an  ox  and  a  turkey,  a  dog,  and  so  on,  to 
set  the  animal  philosopher  right  in  his  summary,  and  on  his  feet  again. 
"  You  can  tell  that  a  cow  isn't  a  horse,  by  the  horns,  you  say  ?  "  "  Let  us 
talk  about  the  horns."  "  My  cow's  horns  turn  outward  first,  and  then 
inward."  " I  think  the  Chinese  finger-nails  look  like  horns."  "It  hurts 
to  saw  off  a  cow's  horn — it  will  bleed."  "What's  the  use  of  horns?" 
"  To  make  combs  out  of."  "  Cows  don't  make  combs  out  of  their  horns. 
What  is  the  use  of  horns  to  the  cow?"  "Oh,  to  hook  with."  "When  a 
dog  goes  at  her  she  will  bite."  "  She  can't  bite  anything  but  grass.  She 
has  to  hook  dogs." 

The  various  points  that  were  brought  out  were  written  on  the  board 
by  the  teacher,  as  the  talk  went  on,  but  the  main  object,  to  get  a  varied 
expression  of  a  familiar  subject,  in  a  class  of  quite  young  children,  was 
shown  in  the  rapid  tossing  of  sentences  from  one  to  another,  and  no 
repetition  nor  stammering  in  the  class.  The  horses  and  cows  talked 
about  were  in  view  from  the  window  of  the  school-room,  to  be  sure,  but 
the  city  child  can  be  taught  to  get  its  observations  from  the  car  horses, 
the  animals  in  the  Zoo  (which  ought  to  be  open  free  to  the  public-school 
children  for  their  object  lessons,  at  certain  times),  and  from  all  the 
variety  of  our  street  scenes. 

The  three  hours  spent  at  the  Quincy  school  were  all  too  short, 
although  much  of  its  method  was  shown  in  that  time.  They  were  long 
enough,  as  visits  to  other  school-rooms  have  shown  by  contrast,  to  de- 
monstrate that  the  noon  bell  found  children,  visitors,  and  teachers  all 
fresh,  instead  of  drained  and  dull  by  text-book  and  routine.  The 
teacher  is  the  only  text-book,  and  I  was  anxious  to  learn  the  effect  of 
the  new  system  on  these  young  girls  and  mature  women. 


206  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 


SUMMARY  ON  READING. 

The  results  in  Reading,  Writing,  and  Spelling  bear  no  just  ratio  to 
the  time  and  effort  given  to  these  branches. 

Definition  of  Reading.  Reading  consists :  first,  in  gaining  the  thought; 
second,  in  giving  expression  to  the  thought. 

First  :  Gaining  the  Thought. 

(a)   Through  silent  reading,  —  this  is  fundamental.      Purely  a  mental 

act.     Called  eye  reading. 
(&)    Cultivate  "  sight  reading  "  (eye  reading)  from  the  first. 
(c)   See  that  the  pupil  acquires  the  power  of  directly  receiving  thought 

from  the  printed  page. 
(jd)   Let  the  child  "  learn  to  read  by  reading." 
(e)    Nothing  of  detail  or  analysis  (as  spelling,  punctuation,  pronouncing 

slowly),  inflection,  or  emphasis  should  stand  in  the  way  of  the 

clear  comprehension  and  expression  of  the  thought. 

Caution. —  Concentrated  attention  of  both  teacher  and  pupils. 

Second  :  Giving  the  Thought. 

(a)   Let  the  sentence  be  read  mentally,  that  is,  silently ;   read  to  one's 

self  before  giving  oral  expression  to  it. 
(6)   Do  not  let  the  pupil  read  a  sentence  aloud,  that  is,  orally,  until  the 

thought  is  in  the  mind. 

(c)  When  the  thought  is  in  the  mind  it  will  control  expression ;  the  sen- 

tences will  be  read  naturally. 

(d)  Bear  in  mind  that  oral  reading  is  subordinate  to  "  eye  reading." 

(e)  With  the  child,  the  "  unit  of  thinking  is  the  thought,  and  the  unit  of 

expression  is  the  sentence." 

Third  :  Preparatory. 

(a)  Let  there  be  kept  up  continual  expression  of  thought  by  the  pupil, 
with  the  use  of  objects. 

(6)  Let  the  transition  from  the  written  work  to  the  book  be  done  cau- 
tiously. It  will  require  only  a  few  lessons  to  make  the  transition 
from  the  board  or  slate  to  the  book. 

(a)  Teacher  should  become  familiar  with  the  lesson. 

(6)  Give  books  to  pupils  after  they  are  ari-anged  in  the  class. 

(c)  Let  pupils  look  over  the  lesson  for  imfamiliar  words. 

(d)  Pupils  close  book,  and  teacher  develops  the  meaning  by  questions 

and  answers. 

(e)  Pupils  use  new  words  in  the  construction  of  sentences. 
(/)   Write  new  words  developed  on  the  board. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  207 

{9)   Pupil^^  look  over  each  sentence  carefully  to  see  if  they  can  under- 
stand the  thought. 
Qi)    Pupils  read. 

Everything  written  on  the  board  should  be  absolutely  correct. 

First  —  In  spelling. 

Second  —  In  the  use  of  capital  letters. 

Third  —  In  punctuation. 

Fourth  —  In  grammatical  construction. 

Fifth  —  In  penmanship. 

Sixth  —  In  form^  such  as  index,  margin,  etc. 


SPELLING, 


Question.  Does  not  the  teaching  in  the  primary  grades  lack  simplicity  ? 

Ansiver.  I  advocate  a  grand  simplicity  of  teaching.  According  to  the 
present  method  of  instruction  in  the  public  schools,  a  child  is  told  to 
spell  "hat,"  and  having  done  that,  is  shown  the  article.  I  would  first  draw 
the  hat  on  the  blackboard,  and  then  tell  the  child  to  bring  it  to  me.  The 
idea  is  grasped  at  once.  It  is  detrimental  to  progress  to  teach  the 
child  the  word  so  that  it  must  be  mentally  analyzed  before  the  youthful 
mind  can  understand  it.  According  to  my  method,  the  boy  learns  to 
write  the  word  ivhen  he  sees^  the  article,  by  identifying  the  name  of  the 
article  with  the  article  itself.  I  am  the  deadly  enemy  of  emptij  words,  yet 
millions  of  dollars  are  annually  expended  in  the  teaching  of  empty  words. 

Q.   What  should  the  first  year's  work  do  ? 

A.  The  first  year's  work  should  be  to  prepare  the  child  for  the  work 
of  composition.  The  year's  work  should  be  spent  in  acquiring  the  forms 
of  words  —  COPYING — so  that  the  child  would  not  be  compelled  to  struggle 
with  them  afterward.  Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  the  use  of 
words.  The  method  I  would  recommend  would  be  to  write  familiar 
words  on  the  blackboard  until  they  could  be  written  rapidly  and  correctly 
by  the  pupil.  There  was  no  necessity  for  their  making  mistakes,  if 
thoroughly  trained  in  the  beginning. 

Q.   How  would  you  teach  spelling,  the  second  year  ? 

A.  During  the  second  year's  work,  children  should  be  taught  by  caus- 
ing them  to  write  upon  a  slate  all  the  words  they  know.  If  they  had  been 
thoroughly  trained  the  first  year,  they  would  never  make  a  mistake.  Then 
these  w^ords  should  be  combined  into  sentences,  which  might  be  written 
upon  the  blackboard  and  copied.  Afterward,  these  sentences  might  be 
erased,  and  written  again  from  memory.  He  would  take  his  seat  in  a 
chair,  then  call  upon  the  pupils  to  tell  what  he  had  done  with  a  pencil. 
Or,  he  would  walk  to  the  window  and  open  it,  with  the  children  watching 


208  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

him.  Then  he  would  call  upon  them  to  tell  what  he  had  done  correctly. 
These  sentences  should  be  begun  with  a  capital  letter,  and  ended  with  a 
period,  every  time.  When  a  child  wanted  a  new  word,  the  mind  should 
be  first  aroused  to  the  necessity  for  it.  Then  the  word  should  be  written 
on  the  blackboard.  It  was  wonderful  to  all  how  readily  and  how  perma- 
nently words  might  be  acquired,  if  taught  in  this  manner. 

Q.   Wpuld  you  teach  the  sounds  of  letters  ? 

A.  No  spelling  by  sound  at  first ;  let  them  pronounce  slowly.  Words 
should  be  taught  as  wholes,  and  when  pupils  are  sufficiently  strong,  let 
them  analyze  the  words.  Go  slowly,  slowly,  slowly;  ten  words  well 
known  are  better  than  one  himdred  not  well  known. 

Q.    What  relation  does  oral  spelling  hold  to  spelling? 

A.   The  same  relation  that  description  does  to  drawing. 

Q.   How  would  you  proceed  to  make  the  child  understand? 

A.  Never  let  a  child  guess  at  a  word.  Every  wrong  form  you  get 
into  a  child's  head  stays  there.  Real  teaching  is  by  object ;  and  if  this 
method  is  observed,  the  child  leams  the  words  with  ease,  and  can  be 
taught  to  talk  as  eloquently  and  as  beautifully  with  the  pencil  as  with  the 
tongue.  The  effect  must  be  in  the  mind  of  the  child,  or  the  teacher  must 
present  it,  otherwise  there  can  be  no  mental  action. 

Q.   Would  you  use  a  spelling-book  ? 

A.  I  would  teach  spelling  along  with  reading.  I  would  teach  him  to 
talk  with  the  pencil  from  the  start.  It  is  grossly  wrong  to  teach  the  pupil 
to  spell  from  monotonous  columns  of  'words.  If  I  do  nothing  more  than 
to  banish  the  spelling-book  from  the  public  school,  I  will  have  done  a 
great  work.  If  I  had  my  w  ay,  all  the  spelling-books  in  existence  would 
be  heaped  together  in  one  pile,  and  burned.  I  assure  you  that  if  this 
were  done,  they  would  shed  more  light  in  this  dark  world  than  they  ever 
did  in  the  school-room. 

Q.   How  would  you  proceed  to  conduct  the  spelling  exercise  ? 

A.  I  would  have  the  children  at  first  copy  the  w^ork  on  the  slates ; 
second,  write  from  dictation.  The  teacher  should  always  examine  the 
slates  of  the  pupils,  and  instantly  erase  all  misspelled  words,  and  write 
the  correct  form.  Get  the  word  incorrectly  spelled  out  of  sight  as  soon 
possible.  The  teacher  should  keep  a  list  of  misspelled  words,  and  call 
them  her  list  of  "  difficult  words,"  and  require  the  pupils  to  write  and 
re-write  until  they  are  learned. 

Q.   How  would  you  advise  teachers  to  drill  a  poor  speller  V 

A.  If  a  word  is  misspelled  by  a  pupil,  put  it  on  the  board,  and  drill 
the  whole  class  in  every  possible  way  (seeing  that  this  pupil  is  giving 
close  attention,  and  not  let  him  know  that  all  this  work  is  for  his  benefit) ; 
after  sufficient  amount  of  drill  is  put  into  it,  let  him  point  to  it  on  the 
board,  ten,  twenty,  or  as  many  times  as  the  teacher  may  see  fit,  until  he 
is  able  to  spell  it. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  209 

Q.  We  wish  to  know  more  about  the  spelling  exercise,  —  inform  us.  ■ 
A.  Every  word  which  the  pupils  have  found  difficulty  in  mastering  is 
placed  upon  this  list  in  the  order  of  its  occurrence,  as  is  also  every  other 
word  in  the  spelling  of  which  the  children  fail.  It  is  a  notable  fact  that 
the  most  failures  are  made  in  words  in  common  use ;  therefore,  the  spell- 
ing of  each  grade  is  confined  to  the  words  in  use  by  the  children,  and  those 
they  are  likely  to  use  within  a  few  years.  Thus  the  spelling  of  the  words 
belonging  to  the.vocabulary  of  each  grade  is  taught  in  that  grade.  Besides 
these  words  which  occur  in  other  lessons,  a  large  proportion  of  this  list  is 
composed  of  words  given  by  the  class  in  special  exercises,  which  may  be 
called  "  word-developing  exercises."  No  w^ord  is  placed  upon  the  list  until 
it  has  first  been  written  upon  the  blackboard,  and  copied  by  the  children 
upon  their  slates.  No  word  developed  in  these  exercises  is  left  until  it 
has,  either  orally  or  upon  their  slates,  been  embodied  by  the  children  in 
sentences  framed  by  themselves,  as  a  test  of  their  knowledge  of  the  true 
meaning  of  the  word.  I  have  repeatedly  spoken  of  the  framing  of  sen- 
tences by  the  children,  and  lest  the  expression  may  mislead  some  one, 
hasten  to  explain  that  here  they  do  not  "  make  a  sentence,"  but  "  tell  a 
story,"  about  the  word ;  and  the  child  is  at  liberty  to  say  as  much  as  he 
will  about  the  word,  provided  he  does  not  occupy  too  much  time ;  the 
object  being  not  to  limit  the  child's  flow  of  thought  or  expression,  but  to 
afford  both  the  fullest  liberty  consistent  with  improvement ;  and  when  the 
teacher  says,  "  Who  will  tell  me  a  story  about  the  word  cold  ?  "  there  is  no 
constraint  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  but  they  pour  forth  all  they  think 
that  shall  express  their  idea  of  the  word,  thus  :  "  This  is  a  cold  day."  "  I 
saw  a  little  girl  on  my  way  to  school  who  looked  as  though  she  was  cold." 
"  I  shall  eat  a  cold  dinner."  One  of  these  word-developing  exercises  is 
conducted  thus  :  Each  child  in  turn  is  allowed  to  touch  something  in  the 
room,  the  name  of  which  is  put  upon  the  board.  This  association  of  the 
name  of  the  object  with  the  object  itself  is  a  great  help.  One  lady  says 
there  are  over  300  objects  in  her  room  which  may  be  touched.  Any  pecu- 
liarity of  spelling  is  spoken  of  while  the  word  is  being  written  upon 
the  board.  If  there  be  silent  letters,  a  line  is  drawn  through  or  under 
them  to  attract  attention  to  them.  The  words  thus  developed  are  all 
name-words.  At  first  it  seems  next  to  an  impossibility  to  represent  action- 
words  ;  but  I  am  assured  that  they  are  all,  or  nearly  all,  capable  of  repre- 
sentation, which  is  done  either  by  the  teacher  or  a  pupil  previously  in- 
structed. The  word  run  is  readily  represented,  if  a  pupil  run  across  the 
room ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  word  stop  is  suggested.  Not  only  the 
words,  but  their  different  forms,  are  thus  illustrated,  as  :  Drop,  dropping, 
dropped ;  walk,  walking,  walked.  In  obtaining  descriptive  words  from 
the  class,  the  teacher  has  often  to  resort  to  questioning,  though  some- 
times these,  too,  can  be  illustrated ;  as,  for  instance,  the  teacher  takes  a 


210  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

flower  from  her  vase  and  smells  of  it.     Such  words  as  sweet,  fragrant, 
odor,  handsome,  scent,  will  be  suggested. 

Q.   How  do  you  test  the  work  in  spelling  ? 

A.  The  committee  furnishes  each  teacher  in  town  with  slips  of  paper, 
called  "  Dunton  slips,"  and  when  all  the  previous  methods  for  fixing  the 
word  in  the  mind  of  the  child  have  been  correctly  used,  one  of  these  slips 
is  given  to  each  member  of  the  grade,  and  the  teacher,  from  her  list  of 
difficult  words  contained  in  the  vocabulary  already  acquired,  pronounces 
as  many  words  as  is  desirable  to  constitute  a  written  spelling  lesson  or 
exercise,  and  each  child  writes  the  word  instantly  after  it  is  pronounced. 
The  slips  are  then  taken  up  and  passed  to  the  teacher,  who,  at  the  proper 
time,  examines  the  papers,  and  makes  a  note  of  the  words  misspelled,  in 
another  list,  which  she  keeps  as  a  list  of  most  difficult  words.  I  should 
have  said  the  first  thing  done  by  the  pupil,  after  receiving  his  slip,  is  to 
write  his  name  at  the  head,  also  the  name  of  the  grade,  and  the  school, 
town,  county,  and  state,  the  hour  of  the  day,  the  day  of  the  week  and 
month,  together  with  the  year.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  words 
have  accumulated  in  tJie  very  difficult  list,  these  words  are  redeveloped  from 
the  insipient  steps,  through  to  the  final  test ;  thus  making  it  almost  im- 
possible for  a  pupil,  in  after  life,  to  be  at  a  loss  how  to  spell  each  word 
correctly. 

Q.  Do  you  think  it  best  to  require  pupils  to  write  a  misspelled  word 
a  certain  number  of  times  as  a  punishment  ? 

A.  I  would  not  require  the  pupils  to  write  a  word  a  certain  number  of 
times  as  a  punishment,  except  for  persistent  carelessness. 

Q.    How  would  you  train  pupils  on  hard  words  ? 

A.  Suppose  the  word  be  locality.  Request  the  child  to  read  the  sen- 
tence again,  and  let  him  say  places,  as  he  goes  on  without  stopping  to  the 
end.  This  synonym  exercise  should  be  required,  when  necessary,  on  hard 
words,  and  let  the  substitute  be  made  when  he  reads,  showing  that  the 
entire  paragraph  is  understood. 

Q.    How  do  you  teach  the  use  of  the  word  ? 

A.  We  teach  the  use  of  most  words  through  synonyms. 

Q.  How  would  you  proceed  to  teach  the  meaning  of  a  word? 
■  A.  After  a  pupil  has  read  a  sentence  or  paragraph,  I  should  ask  him 
to  give  a  synonym  in  the  place  of  some  selected  word,  or  to  use  some, 
word  he  has  just  read,  in  a  sentence  of  his  own;  or,  I  might  give  him 
a  word  from  the  sentence,  to  be  used  in  a  sentence  written  on  the  black- 
board, while  another  pupil  is  reading. 

Q.   How  is  the  true  meaning  of  each  word  tested  ? 

A.  After  the  lesson  has  been  well  studied  in  this  matter,  the  children's 
knowledge  of  the  true  meaning  of  each  word  is  tested,  as  I  have  before 
said,  by  sentences,  or  stories  told  by  the  pupils,  and  containing  the  words 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  211 

in  the  lesson.  No  sentence  is  accepted  which  does  not  convey  the  mean- 
ing. "  She  is  sorrowful,"  is  not  satisfactory,  but  "  She  is  sorrowful  be- 
cause she  had  offended  her  mother,"  shows  the  desired  knowledge  in  regard 
to  the  word  sorrowful.  This  story-telling  is  often  conducted  in  the 
following  manner,  which  will  be  recognized  as  intensifying  in  the  extreme. 

The  children  are  permitted  each  to  select  the  word  about  which  they 
are  to  tell  a  story,  and  as  their  teacher  calls  them  by  name,  each  tells 
his  story,  and  stepping  to  the  board,  erases  the  word,  after  which  he 
passes  to  his  seat.  I  observe  that  there  are  usually  as  many  words  as 
pupils.  I  also  observe  that  the  teacher  invariably  calls  on  the  brightest 
pupils  to  tell  their  stories  first,  and,  in  consequence,  the  dull  ones  have 
sometimes  to  select  a  number  of  words,  and  have  stories  ready  several 
times  before  they  are  called  upon.  IE  a  pupil  is  not  prepared  with  a  sen- 
tence, he  is  not  reprimanded,  or  called  stupid,  but  some  other  takes  the 
word  and  goes  on,  while  the  delinquent  makes  haste  to  select  again,  and 
prepare  for  a  more  successful  attempt. 

Q.  How  would  you  aid  the  pupil  to  acquire  the  use  and  meaning  of 
words  ?  » 

A.  The  knowledge  of  the  pupil,  as  to  the  significance  of  words,  is 
aided  by  "  learning  at  least  four  lines  of  choice  poetry  each  week."  This 
exercise  seems  to  improve  the  pupil  in  reading,  and  in  the  use  of  language, 
in  a  marked  degree.  It  is  also  an  excellent  practice  for  the  cultivation 
of  the  memory,  and  a  source  of  much  pleasure  to  the  pupil. 

Q.   Why  is  it  that  so  many  adults  spell  poorly  ? 

A.  Bad  spelling  is  a  product  of  the  schools.  The  teacher  should 
never  receive  any  careless  work,  and  should  ever  enforce  the  necessity  of 
care.  Everything  a  child  does  should  be  inspected  and  marked.  There 
was  no  use  of  a  pupil  doing  work,  if  the  teacher  did  not  see  it.  Teachers 
were  sometimes  careless  themselves,  which  he  thought  an  inexcusable 
fault.  There  should  be  no  oral  spelling  during  the  first  year,  and  absolute 
correctness  in  copying  should  he  enforced.  A  skilful  teacher  could  thus 
lead  the  pupil  to  absolute  accuracy.  He  could  not  too  strongly  impress 
upon  teachers  the  value  of  this  rule.  There  was  only  one  right  form  for 
a  M^ord,  and  if  one  or  more  wrong  forms  were  used  by  the  child,  they 
would  be  reproduced  in  after  life  in  the  most  unexpected  manner  and 
time.  He  condemned  the  spelling-book  as  a  "wicked  thing."  By  his 
own  method,  a  child  could  be  taught  to  spell  almost  every  word  correctly 
in  three  years,  but  he  challenged  any  one  to  produce  a  similar  instance  of 
success  by  the  spelling-book  method. 

Q.   What  should  be  the  standard  of  examination  in  copying  sentences? 

A.  The  standard  of  examination  should  be  absolute  perfection  in 
copying  sentences  from  the  blackboard,  the  words  of  which  (sentences) 
have  been  previously  copied  by  pupils. 


212  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

Q.    Would  you  request  the  children  to  write  sentences  ? 

A.  Yes ;  as  soon  as  they  can,  let  them  talk  with  the  pencil  from  the 
slate. 

Q.   AVhat  kind  of  sentences  should  be  dictated  in  primary  grades  ? 

A.  Teachers  are  to  keep  the  list  of  words  learned  by  the  pupils,  and 
the  sentences  dictated  should  be  composed  of  these  words. 

Q.   How  would  you  mark  errors  ? 

A.  If  there  is  a  single  mistake  in  spelling,  capitals,  or  punctuation  in 
a  sentence,  the  sentence  should  be  mai'ked  wrong. 

Q.   What  is  the  value  of  a  sentence  ? 

A.   The  value  of  a  sentence  is  the  thought. 

Q.    How  do  you  lead  the  child  up  to  understand  the  thought? 

A.  The  value  of  a  word  is  the  value  of  the  idea  of  which  it  is  the  sign ; 
therefore  a  word  is  of  no  value  unless  it  recalls  an  idea,  and  children  are 
never  allowed  to  think  they  have  read  a  sentence,  if  the  thought  it  con- 
tains is  not  understood.  Comprehension  of  thought  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  proper  expression ;  that  is,  a  thought  in  the  mind  is  the  incentive 
to  emphasis^  inflection,  modulation,  and  pauses.  If  the  thought  is  gTasped 
by  the  pupil,  the  expression  will  be  natural.  It  follows  that  a  sentence 
cannot  be  properly  read  until  the  thought  be  perceived  by  the  pupil,  — 
now,  how  can  the  thought  be  perceived  by  the  pupil,  unless  the  ideas 
which  the  words  are  intended  to  recall  have  been  developed  in  his  mind 
previous  to  his  attempt  to  read?  "  The  letter  kilieth,  but  the  spu'it  mak- 
eth  alive." 


LANGUAGE. 


Question.   Do  you  teach  language  specially,  or  only  incidentally? 

Answer.  Language  should  be  taught  in  connection  with,  or  rather  in- 
corporated in,  each  exercise ;  aside  from  this,  there  should  be  a  portion  of 
time  set  aside  for  special  drill  in  expression,  termed  "conversational 
lessons." 

Q.   What  is  the  object  of  conversational  exercises,  as  you  call  them  ? 

A.  To  teach  expression  and  readiness ;  also  to  train  children  to  use 
their  eyes. 

Q.   How  would  you  begin  to  teach  language  ? 

A.  Do  something-,  and  let  the  child  tell  what  you  did.  Accurate  de- 
scription is  the  highest  point  of  cojuposition.  Let  them  see  thought  of  God 
in  Nature.     Give  the  child  plenty  of  food  from  which  to  get  thought. 

Q.    How  would  you  teach  language  to  little  children  ? 

A.  First,  do  something ;  second,  ask  the  children  what  you  did ;  third, 
let  the  children  tell  you  by  writing  it. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  213 

Q.   How  do  you  teach  language  in  the  primary  grades  ? 

A.  One  of  the  most  valuable  methods  of  the  "  new  departure  "  is  the 
use  of  pictures.  The  teachers  are  furnished  with  all  the  pasteboard,  cut 
into  graded  sizes,  necessary  to  back  all  the  pictures  they  can  collect ;  and 
by  mutual  exchange,  each  teacher  secures  a  large  number  of  pictures  suited 
to  use  in  her  grade.  These  pictures  are  classified  according  to  their  adapta- 
tion for  particular  class  exercises,  and  kept  in  boxes  (which  are  also  fur- 
nished them),  each  box  being  labelled  like  the  pictm-es  it  contains.  Each 
teacher  has  a  catalogue  of  her  pictures,  numbered  so  that  she  can  readily 
get  any  one  that  she  desires.  These  pictures  are  now  used  just  as  black- 
board pictures  have  been  heretofore,  but  more  especially  for  the  purpose 
of  cultivating  the  perceptive  faculties,  particularly  the  eye.  Each  child 
being  given  a  picture,  he  is  permitted  to  tell  or  write  all  he  sees  in  it ; 
and,  to  a  stranger,  it  is  astonishing  to  perceive  how  much  more  the  child 
will  see  than  an  adult,  or  even  his  teacher.  The  child  failing  to  see  all 
that  there  is  in  the  picture,  the  teacher  makes  suggestions  in  the  form  of 
statements  or  questions.  These  suggestions  are  as  few  as  possible.  This 
is  "  Busy  Work." 

Q.   Give  us  an  example  of  the  way  you  begin  to  teach  language. 

A.  Besides  the  language  lessons  in  connection  with,  or  rather  incor- 
porated in,  each  lesson  of  the  day,  there  is  a  portion  of  each  half  day 
devoted  to  special  drill  in  expression,  —  conversation  lessons.  It  is  seen 
at  once  that  these  lessons  afford  still  wider  scope  for  the  exercise  of  inge- 
nuity and  acuteness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  are,  if  possible,  still 
more  interesting  and  beneficial  to  the  children,  since  a  specialty  is  made 
of  describing  accurately  acts,  occurrences,  and  things,  which  is  a  much 
more  difficult  and  rare  accomplishment  than  the  description  of  imaginary 
events  or  things.  A  piece  of  chalk  is  dropped  upon  the  floor.  This  is  a 
very  simple  act,  and  it  is  described  in  a  single  sentence.  The  variety  of 
expressions  used  by  the  pupils  in  such  a  description  is  surprising.  These 
corrections  are  commended  or  a  correction  pleasantly  suggested.  I  hear 
continually  such  quiet  yet  forcible  expressions  as  these  :  "  I  think  you  can 
do  better  than  that."  "  Try  it  again,  and  see  if  you  don't  improve."  "  I 
don't  think  you  have  done  your  best."  "  Think  a  minute."  All  the  time 
there  is  an  avoidance  of  calling  names,  particularly  in  cases  of  correc- 
tion, so  that  no  member  of  the  class  feels  that  he  is  looked  upon  as  a 
culprit.  Connected  acts  are  performed  and  described  in  the  same  way. 
For  instance :  The  teacher  goes  into  the  hall,  leaving  the  door  ajar,  and 
returns,  closing  the  door ;  passing  to  the  pail  of  water,  she  takes  a  drink, 
throwing  what  remains  in  the  dipper  out  of  the  window.  Or,  a  little  girl 
being  asked  to  do  something,  goes  to  the  blackboard,  and  standing  one 
rubber  on  end,  balances  another  on  top  of  it ;  she  then  tumbles  them  down, 
and  going  to  the  window,  looks  out ;  then  passing  to  her  seat,  she  folds  her 


214  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

arms  :  a  few  of  the  children  play  marbles,  etc.,  etc.,  —  all  of  the  class  giv- 
ing a  description  of  what  is  done.  Great  pains  is  taken  not  to  fall  into 
the  natural  error  of  trying  to  do  too  much  at  once,  which  is  sure  to  end 
in  doing  nothing.  The  actions  are  few,  and  the  time  occupied  in  one 
scene  seldom  exceeds  three  minutes.  Sometimes  the  children  sit  perfectly 
still,  and  write  about  any  noise  they  may  hear  in  any  given  number  of 
minutes ;  or,  they  are  asked  to  imagine  they  are  at  home,  or  in  the  woods, 
etc.,  and  are  told  to  describe  the  sounds  they  hear,  or  rather  imagine  they 
hear.  A  very  interesting  exercise,  too  good  to  be  forgotten^  is  one  in 
which  the  children  are  told  to  describe  something  they  saw  on  the  way  to 
school,  while  the  rest  try  to  think  what  it  is ;  and  if  they  fail  to  think, 
the  child  giving  the  description  may  tell  them  the  first  letter  of  its  name, 
or  give  some  word  that  sounds  like  it,  till  it  is  guessed.  It  appears  to  me 
that  no  one  who  considers  the  natural  results  of  this  continued  training 
of  the  perceptive  faculties,  together  with  facility  of  expression,  both  oral 
and  written,  can  fail  to  see  with  delight  the  comparative  ease  with  which 
these  children  will  master  elements  and  principles  in  the  broad  field  of 
investigation  that  lies  before  them.     They  are,  indeed,  ready  for  anything. 

Q.  When  would  you  permit  a  child  to  write  a  thought  ? 

A.  As  soon  as  a  child  can  tell  something  that  he  has  learned ;  then  I 
would  have  him  write  it.  The  child  can  often  give  a  very  good  oral 
description,  when  he  finds  much  difficulty  in  writing  what  he  knows. 
AVriting  insures  exactness. 

Q.  When  the  children  are  able  to  write,  how  would  you  proceed  to  in- 
struct them  in  language  ? 

A.  Natural  objects  were  the  best  to  be  used  in  the  instruction  of  chil- 
dren. A  bird,  a  flower,  a  plant,  were  all  great  helps.  Two  birds  brought 
into  the  school-room  could  be  compared  with  much  benefit  by  the  pupils. 
There  was  nothing  like  comparison  for  developing  a  child's  power  of  ob- 
servation and  testing  its  knowledge  of  the  language.  Bring  the  child 
face  to  face  with  animals,  and  cause  it  to  exhaust  its  powers  of  descrip- 
tion upon  them.  It  should  be  taught  to  find  out  everytliing  for  itself  One 
excellent  means  of  acquiring  habits  of  observation  recommended  was  the 
keeping  of  diaries.  This  induced  a  habit  of  care  and  a  methodical  way 
of  accumulating  facts.  Children  should  be  able  to  write  down  clearly 
and  concisely  what  they  saw.  Besides  the  educating  influence  of  this 
method,  a  love  for  natural  science  is  aroused  in  the  mind  of  the  child,  the 
benefit  of  which  is  untold.  A  child  that  loved  nature  possessed  at  least 
one  element  of  salvation,  and  an  influence  which  would  draw  it  nearer  to 
good  and  to  God.  His  plan  was  to  teach  the  parts  of  flowers,  and  when 
children  required  a  new  word  to  give  it  to  them.  Accurate  description 
was  the  thing  to  be  aimed  at.  Everything  a  child  gains,  it  gains  for  itself 
of  its  own  mental  activity.     It  took  a  child  a  long  time  to  see  a  thing  well. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  215 

He  advocated  the  use  of  animals  and  plants  in  teaching  children  the  lan- 
guage. Children  were  especially  interested  in  animals,  and  a  favorite  way 
of  his  was  to  get  them  there  to  tell  what  they  could  about  those  they  were 
the  most  familiar  with. 

Q.   In  what  other  way  would  you  teach  it  ? 

A.  The  pupils  in  the  lowest  primary  grades  should  invent  stories,  and 
illustrate  them  by  drawings  on  the  slate ;  they  also  write  their  thoughts, 
and  read  them  before  the  class ;  as  soon  as  an  idea  is  gained,  it  is  sm'e  to 
find  expression.  All  lessons  given  should  be  in  part  language  lessons ; 
the  language  part  consists  in  constantly  taking  care  that  the  forms  of  ex- 
pression are  correct,  and  the  arrangement  of  words  proper.  The  onerous 
drudgery  of  learning  to  spell  is  not  necessary,  for  children  learn  a  new 
word  when  a  new  idea  demands  one,  and  not  before. 

Q.   Is  not  description  a  good  way  to  acquire  language  ? 

A.  Requiring  pupils  to  describe  actions  is  the  highest  kind  of  lan- 
guage lessons ;  all  language  can  be  taught  in  that  way.  Let  them  describe 
things ;  their  quality,  actions,  and  uses.  As  soon  as  they  can  easily  write, 
let  them  describe  their  little  parties,  picnics,   travels,  etc.     Accurate 

DESCRIPTION   IS    THE    HIGHEST   POINT   OF    COMPOSITION. 

Q.    How  do  you  manage  to  teach  language  with  pictures  ? 

A.  Each  teacher  should  be  furnished  pasteboard  cards,  on  which  she 
shall  paste  pictures  from  pictorial  papers,  magazines,  etc.,  or  that  the 
children  bring  to  her  for  that  purpose.  The  pictures  should  be  passed, 
and  the  pupils  requested  to  write  about  them.  By  the  aid  of  pictures,  the 
lessons  are  greatly  enlivened,  and  much  information  is  gained ;  and,  at  the 
same  time,  ideas  are  suggested  which  are  sure  to  find  expression,  and  that 
is  what  is  particularly  desired. 

Q.    How  do  you  cultivate  original  composition  ? 

A.  Exactly  the  same  thing  holds  true  of  writing.  Xo  human  being 
can  be  interested  in  making  pot-hooks,  or  in  filling  dreary  copy-books  with 
copies,  but  almost  any  one  can  be  interested  in  putting  his  thoughts  into 
words,  if  he  is  rightly  taught.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  nothing  seems  to  en- 
tertain children  more,  after  they  begin  to  write  with  tolerable  ease,  than 
to  give  on  their  slates  an  abstract  of  some  story  they  have  read,  or  to 
describe  anything  else  that  happens  to  have  attracted  their  attention. 
Where  this  system  of  original  composition  has  been  adopted  from  the  be- 
ginning, the  classes  soon  acquire  real  ease  and  facility  of  expression ;  they 
write  as  they  read  and  as  they  talk,  —  naturally. 

Q.    How  do  children  learn  to  speak  correctly  ? 

A.  Xever  allow  a  child  to  see  a  word  incorrectly  written.  He  never 
asked  a  child  "Is  this  correct?"  It  should  be  allowed  to  see  no  incorrect 
words.  People  only  learned  to  speak  incorrectly  by  hearing  the  language 
spoken  incorrectly.     N"o  one  ever  learned  to  avoid  faults  of  expression  by 


216  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

hearing  incorrect  language  given  them  to  translate  into  correct  language. 
Children  should  also  be  trained  to  know  when  they  are  wrong.  They 
should  be  taught  to  be  certain  about  everything  they  had  learned. 

Q.   Suppose  the  child  uses  "is  "  for  " are,"  how  would  you  correct  it? 

A.  In  order  to  correct  the  habit,  give  him  many  opportunities  to  use 
it  correctly. 

Q.   Is  it  not  a  good  practice  to  permit  pupils  to  question  each  other  ? 

A.  Pupils  should  be  permitted  to  question  each  other.  This  is  a  very 
interesting  and  profitable  exercise.  For  instance,  suppose  a  child  should 
read  a  line  containing  the  word  adventure.  Let  one  pupil  ask  another  to 
use  it.  The  pupil  answers,  "I  met  with  an  adventure  last  summer." 
"  What  was  it  ?  "  The  pupil  replies,  "  I  had  a  fight  with  a  wild-cat,  and 
the  cat  got  the  worst  of  it." 

Q.   What  does  the  general  term  "language"  include? 

A.  The  general  term  "  language  teaching  "  includes  all  the  various  de- 
vices for  developing  ideas,  as  well  as  the  time  and  manner  of  furnishing 
the  child  with  a  vocabulary,  to  be  used  as  recallers  of  ideas  in  acts  of 
perception  and  conception.  Such  lessons  include,  also,  the  various  meth- 
ods for  impressing  indelibly  upon  the  mind  the  forms  of  the  words  as  a 
whole,  as  well  as  the  analysis  and  the  synthesis  of  its  parts,  including  the 
training  of  the  vocal  organs  in  the  utterance  of  these  sounds,  of  which 
the  parts  of  the  words  are  to  the  mind  merely  reminders.  A  word  is  not 
considered  learned  until  it  can  be  recognized  and  spoken  by  the  pupil  the 
instant  his  eye  covers  it. 

Q.   Do  you  teach  grammar  from  text-books  ? 

A.  No;  not  in  the  primary  departments,  and  a  limited  Tise  in  the 
grammar  departments.  We  train  them  in  correctly  spoken  and  written 
language,  and  make  these  prominent  at  every  step  of  the  pupil's  progress. 
We  train  the  children  to  observe  carefully,  to  think  accurately,  and  to 
express  their  thoughts  readily  and  easily. 

Q.   What  is  your  judgment  of  the  general  method  of  teaching  grammar? 

A.  The  present  general  method  of  teaching  grammar  is  all  wrong. 
If  you  want  children  to  speak  correctly,  present  occasion  for  thinking ;  let 
them  express  their  thoughts  in  words,  and  when  far  enough  advanced,  let 
them  read  the  science  of  the  English  language,  and  they  will  not  hate 
grammar  as  they  do  now,  while,  at  the  same  time,  they  will  be  able  to 
speak  and  write  more  correctly.  I  have  heard  school  children  rattle  off 
from  memory  page  after  page  of  geography,  grammar,  and  reading,  but 
it  was  all  mechanical.  This  is  not  so  much  the  fault  of  teachers  as  it 
is  generally  supposed  to  be.  You  select  for  school  directors,  gentlemen 
who  apply  to  the  education  of  the  young  a  system  that  has  been  handed 
down  from  the  traditions  of  our  English  forefathers.  These  directors 
say :  "  This  method  made  my  ancestors  great  men.  See  what  it  has 
made  us."     They  don't  seem  to  think  that  this  is  a  progressive  age. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  217 


GEOGRAPHY. 

Question.   How  would  you  begin  to  teach  geogi-aphy  to  children  ? 

Anstoer.  The  moulding-board  is  used  in  teaching  geography,  for  all 
the  forms  of  relief,  and  the  contour  of  the  continents.  In  short,  the 
teaching  is  objective;  ideas  are  acquired  from  the  object  of  thought  by 
the  children,  and  they  are  led  to  a  correct  expression  of  them. 

Q.  Would  you  require  the  child  to  memorize  the  definitions  in  the 
geographies  ? 

A.  No.  Teach  geography,  as  far  as  possible,  by  observation ;  when 
you  cannot  teach  all  of  the  land  and  water  divisions  by  observation,  deal 
with  the  imagination.  Let  them  see  the  hill,  slopes,  range,  chain ;  if  no 
hills  are  near,  use  the  moulding-board.  A  stereotyped  definition  of  a  hill, 
valley,  or  a  plain  is  of  no  use  to  a  child ;  he  may  easily  commit  the  words 
to  memory,  and  not  acquire  one  new  idea. 

Q.   How  do  you  teach  geography  in  the  grammar  schools  ? 

A.  The  recitations  in  geography  in  the  grammar  schools  are  sometimes 
thus  conducted :  A  miniature  wagon  containing  sand  is  wheeled  before 
the  class,  and  the  subject  of  the  lesson  practically  illustrated  by  what  may 
be  called  world-building.  Suppose  the  subject  is  Africa.  Teacher  and 
pupils  outline  the  continent,  heap  up  mountains  in  one  place,  scoop  out 
valleys  in  another,  draw  the  lines  of  the  water-courses,  locate  cities,  des- 
erts, capes,  until  the  real  Africa  seems  to  lie  in  little  before  them.  They 
search  with  Livingstone  for  the  sources  of  the  Nile ;  they  push  their  way 
with  Stanley  across  the  "  dark  continent." 

Q.   What  2ive  the  barriers  in  teaching  geography  ? 

A.  We,  ourselves,  lack  the  ideas,  and  what  we  fail  to  understand  we 
fail  to  impart  to  others. 

Q.   How  long  would  you  keep  a  class  in  elementary  geography  ? 

A.  One  year  is  sufficient  in  elementary  geography  as  a  preparation  for 
the  building  up  of  continents. 

Q.   Should  drawing  maps  precede  moulding  ? 

A.  The  drawing  should  succeed  moulding;  do  not  strive  for  perfect 
maps.     Use  squares  or  outlines  for  groundwork. 

Q.   What  is  the  measure  of  the  child's  geographical  knowledge  ? 

A.   The  child's  experience  is  the  measure  of  everything  he  knows. 

Q.   Tell  us  about  world-building. 

A.  Let  me  describe  the  work  of  a  teacher  :  Now',  it  would  seem  that 
every  teacher  ought  to  know  the  one  proper  way  of  studying  and  reciting 
a  lesson  on  Africa.  But  this  teacher  evidently  did  not.  Instead  of  that, 
she  wheeled  before  the  class  what  looked  like  a  miniature  express-wagon, 
upon  it  a  pile  of  sand,  and  with  this  sand  she  began  to  play  with  these 


2iy  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORIv. 

big  boys  and  girls.  The  game  seemed  to  be  a  sort  of  world-buildiiig. 
For  tlie  waters  were  gathered  together  in  one  place,  and  the  dry  land  of 
Africa  appeared;  and  certainly  a  veiy  beautiful,  tell-tale  likeness  of 
Africa  it  was.  Then  the  mountains  were  raised  up,  both  in  the  east  and 
in  the  west,  joining  towards  the  cape,  and  between  them  appeared  the 
great  deserts,  and  streams  began  to  flow  from  the  mountains,  and  joined 
to  form  great  rivers ;  real  rivers,  real  deserts,  real  capes,  real  mountains 
those ;  and  strange  to  say,  those  boys  and  girls  seemed  to  know  all  about 
them,  and  to  act  over  anew  the  drama  of  creation  with  delight  so  intense 
as  if  the  original  God-image  of  their  souls  had  not  long  since  been  de- 
stroyed by  original  sin.  And  now  they  made  the  waters  bring  forth 
abundantly  moving  creatures ;  and  the  earth,  cattle,  creeping  things,  and 
gTeat  beasts ;  the  dry  land,  herb  and  tree,  all  after  the  genuine  African 
kind ;  they  people  the  coast ;  they  built  great  cities ;  they  founded  em- 
pires ;  a  band  of  young  philosophers,  they  tried  to  discover  the  causes  of 
the  desert  and  of  the  annual  inundation  of  Egypt ;  a  band  of  young  ex- 
plorers, they  searched  with  Livingstone  for  the  sources  of  the  Xile,  and 
they  were  lost  with  him ;  and  so  many  young  Stanleys,  they  pushed  their 
way  through  the  "  dark  continent,"  and  found  him.  Not  one  child,  of 
course,  that  was  not  thoroughly  absorbed  in  doings  like  these,  —  and 
this  w^eird  play  they  had  the  audacity  to  call  a  lesson  in  geography. 

Q.    Should  you  study  a  continent  before  a  state  ? 

A.  The  general  features  of  a  continent  should  be  studied  before  those 
of  a  state.     It  becomes  easier  to  study  a  state  afterwards. 

Q.    How  would  you  begin  to  teach  the  idea  of  a  continent? 

A.  First  find  out  all  that  the  child  has  for  a  foundation,  and  from 
this  teach  him  to  observe  elementary  forms.  Let  the  child  tell  you  all  he 
knows.  Let  him  use  the  sand,  blocks,  form,  for  hours.  Train  him  to 
observe  things  in  the  open  field.  Give  them  liberty  to  see  at  random ; 
afterward,  lead  them  to  combine  and  classify. 

Q.   How  would  you  begin  the  study  of  a  continent  ? 

A.  Build  it  up  in  the  imagination.  Let  it  be  the  product  of  the 
senses.     It  is  a  good  means  of  cultivating  the  imagination. 

Q.    What  do  you  mean  by  study  of  a  continent  ? 

A.  The  study  of  a  continent  is  the  framework  in  which  the  detail,  or 
local  geography,  can  be  placed.  The  facts  accumulate,  and  gradually  the 
framework  is  filled  in,  —  it  is  the  groundwork. 

Q.    How  would  you  proceed  to  impress  the  whole  ? 

A.  The  clearness  and  distinctiveness  of  the  whole  depends  on  the 
clearness  of  the  parts.  The  study  of  elementary  geography  is  the  study 
of  parts,  separate  structures ;  the  child  should  see  the  mountain  slopes. 

Q.    Would  you  teach  mathematical  geography  in  primary  grades  ? 

A.  Mathematical  geography  can  be  taught  successfully  only  in  the 
high  school.     "  The  pure  in  heart  shall  see  God." 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  219 

Q.  Do  you  not  think  it  is  a  good  plan  to  teach  geography  by  com- 
parisons ? 

A.  Yes.  AVhen  the  second  continent  is  made,  compare  it  with  the 
first.  Compare  in  relation  to  its  physical  features,  contour,  minerals, 
vegetables,  and  animals;  its  shelter,  food,  clothing,  advancement,  etc.; 
its  rain-fall  and  snow. 

Q.   What  is  the  great  unit  of  division  of  the  continent  ? 

A.   The  highlands,  —  analyze  the  highlands. 

Q.   What  determines  the  character  of  a  continent? 

A.   The  form. 

Q.    What  determines  the  shape  of  a  continent  ? 

A.  Its  elevation.  The  elevation  determines  the  life  products;  they 
determine  the  climate. 


NUMBEB. 


Question.   How  would  you  teach  number  ? 

Answer.  Begin  with  a  number  that  the  child  knows.  Teach  all  there 
is  to  this  number  before  passing  to  the  next. 

Q.    How  would  you  teach  number  from  one  to  tw^enty  ? 

A.   It  should  be  taught  so  thoroughly  as  to  be  recalled  automatically. 

Q.   Would  you  teach  number  abstractly  at  first  ? 

A.  All  the  elementary  facts  in  arithmetic  should  be  entirely  learned 
from  objects.  All  rules,  definitions,  and  processes  should  be  discovered 
by  the  pupil  himself.  The  end  of  education  (and  this  is  an  important 
thing)  is  not  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  but  the  development  of  the 
mind. 

Q.    How  is  a  knowledge  of  numbers  and  their  relation  gained  ? 

A.  1.  A  KNOWLEDGE  OF  NUMBERS  and  their  relations  is  gained  in  the 
same  way  as  a  knowledge  of  color,  form,  size,  or  weight.  The  ideas  of 
of  which  red,  square,  large,  and  six  are  the  signs,  are  taken  (abstracted) 
from  objects.  What  these  words  (red,  etc.)  are  to  the  mind  depends  en- 
tu'ely  upon  the  products  of  sense-perception,  and  no  amount  of  study  of 
signs  alone  will  ever  bring  the  slightest  knowledge  of  the  things  they 
represent.  Signs  may  be  learned  without  a  definite  association  with  the 
ideas  that  they  should  recall ;  they  are  learned,  in  fact,  and  the  learning 
of  figures  and  not  numbers  —  signs,  not  things  —  is  the  fundamental  mis- 
take in  teaching  arithmetic. 

2.  a  number  cajif  be  separated  into  equal  or  unequal  parts. 
Equal  or  unequal  numbers  may  be  combined.  Nothing  more  can 
be  done  with  a  number  or  numbers. 


220  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

To  illustrate  :  Present  a  number  of  marks,  thus,  1 1 1 1  —  the  sign  is  4. 
Present  the  same  objects  thus,  II  I  I .  The  relations  seen  may  be  exjiressed, 
"In  four  I  see  two  and  two,"  "I  see  two  twos,"  "Two  marks  and  two 
marks  are  four  marks,"  or  "  Four  marks  less  two  marks  are  two  marks." 
The  two  relations  of  separation  and  combination  are  seen  together ;  they 
are  reciprocal ;  one  suggests  the  other ;  one  cannot  be  thought  wdthout 
the  other  is  known,  either  consciously  or  unconsciously.  Therefore,  the 
teaching  of  one  relation  is  greatly  aided  by  the  teaching  of  the  other  at 
the  same  time. 

3.  The  combination  of  numbers  is  Addition  ;  of  equal  numbers 
is  Multiplication.  The  separation  of  a  number  is  Subtraction  ;  the 
separation  of  a  number  into  two  equal  parts  is  Division  ;  the  separation 
of  a  unit  into  equal  parts  gives  Fractional  Units.  All  that  belongs  to 
pure  arithmetic  has  for  its  foundation,  root,  and  source,  the  simple  put- 
ting together  and  putting  apart  numbers  of  things. 

4.  Plants  and  Numbers  should  be  taught  by  precisely  the 
SAME  method.  First,  the  whole  plant  or  number  is  observed  ;  then  the 
parts  on  the  plant  or  number,  or  severed  from  the  whole ;  afterward 
the  plant  or  number  is  to  be  compared  with  all  other  known  plants  or 
numbers. 

Grube  simply  extended  the  method  of  object-teaching  to  teaching  of 
numbers  of  objects. 

5.  The  proper  way  of  teaching  language  in  number  pre- 
sents A  complete  and  logical  illustration  of  the  manner  in 
which  all  language  should  be  taught. 

Ideas  are  gained  from  objects.  When  an  idea  becomes  by  sense- 
perception  a  clear  idea,  it  demands  expression.  From  repeatedly  seeing 
and  handling  three  blocks,  three  marbles,  three  sticks,  etc.,  there  comes 
into  the  mind  the  idea  of  which  three,  3,  or  III  is  the  sign. 

The  relation  of  two  or  more  ideas  —  a  thought  —  is  seen  again  and 
again.  When  this  thought  is  clear,  it  of  itself  demands  expression  by  a 
sentence.  To  illustrate :  supposing  the  idea  and  signs  3,  2,  5  to  be  already 
known,  then  the  repeated  observation  of  these  objects  III,  1 1 ,  O  /I7  O, 
CJ  O,  ±  ±  ±,  ±  ±,  *  *  *  *  *,  thus  arranged,  awakens  the  thought  expressed 
by  the  sentence,  "  Three  and  two  are  five."  The  very  important  law  is, 
tpach  clear  ideas  first,  then  their  signs ;  teach  relations  of  ideas,  and  then 
the  sentences  which  express  them. 

We  can  express  that  only  which  is  clear  in  the  mind ;  it  is  dangerous 
to  force  expression  of  that  which  is  dim ;  lead  to  clearness  before  any 
attempt  at  expression  is  demanded.  Ideas  groio  very  slowly,  and  the  most 
important  part  of  a  teacher's  duty,  after  presenting  the  proper  opportunities 
for  the  growth  of  ideas,  is  to  wait  and  watch. 

Pupils  should  be  allowed  to  express  their  thoughts  in  the  idioms  which 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  221 

they  have  been  using  all  their  lives.  The  early  introduction  of  terms, 
phrases,  and  sentences  entirely  foreign  to  their  minds,  such  as  "  divided 
by,"  "  multiply,"  "  subtract,"  "  taking  one  number  from  another,"  "  taking 
one  numbel*  so  many  times,"  is  disastrous ;  for  such  forms  cannot,  for  a 
time,  contain  a  child's  thoughts.  The  child  should  be  slowly  led  to  these 
expressions  by  permitting  it  at  first  to  use  its  own  words,  and  slowly  make 
the  new  forms  known  by  association  and  repetition. 

Q.  How"  long  should  objects  be  used  in  teaching  number,  to  produce 
sense-products  ? 

A.   It  is  difficult  to  tell ;  it  may  cease  at  ten. 

Q.    How  far  should  a  child  go  in  number  the  first  year  ? 

A.   A  child  cannot  be  taught  more  than  ten  the  first  year. 

Q.   How  would  you  proceed  with  number  lessons  ? 

A.  In  number  lessons,  I  would  have  the  child  tell  how  he  performed  a 
problem,  and  the  next  time  he  writes  it,  and  then  he  has  a  rule  subject  to 
the  changes  which  later  experience  suggests. 

Q.   Would  you  have  the  examples  solved  without  the  use  of  figures  ? 

A.  Have  the  pupil  illustrate  everything.  Have  the  examples  solved 
without  figures. 

Q.    Should  facts  be  learned? 

A.  All  facts  should  be  discovered  by  the  child.  Do  not  force  an 
inference. 


HISTORY. 


Qtiestio7i.   Give  us  an  idea  of  your  method  of  teaching  history. 

.4  nsicer.  For  example,  let  the  topic  be  "  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  the 
first  Settlement  in  Carolina."  After  sufficient  study,  I  would  request  the 
pupils  to  write,  in  a  letter  to  their  friends,  what  they  know  about  it.  I 
would  give  them  forty  or  forty-five  minutes  to  wTite  upon  the  subject. 
Such  a  method  would  produce  genuine  interest  in  the  study,  and  develop 
language. 

Q.    How  is  the  recitation  in  history  conducted  ? 

A.  The  methods  by  which  this  most  desirable  result  is  obtained  can- 
not be  given  in  full  here,  but  they  may  be  suggested.  The  recitation  in 
history  is  thus  conducted :  Each  pupil  writes,  in  the  form  of  a  letter  to  a 
friend,  all  he  knows  concerning  a  certain  topic,  as,  for  instance,  the  settle- 
ment of  Montreal.  This  is  not  only  an  exercise  in  composition,  but  in 
penmanship,  orthography,  punctuation,  capitalization,  and  letter-writing. 
The  mistakes  are  afterward  pointed  out  and  corrected,  and  the  pupil,  if 
apt,  soon  learns  to  wi'ite  page  after  page  correctly  at  first  draft.  The  pen 
is  used  as  freely  by  the  student  as  the  tongue  in  ordinary  schools. 


g^2  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

Q.  "What  is  the  foundation  for  remembering  and  miderstanding 
history? 

A.  We  teach  geography,  first,  as  the  foundation  for  remembering  and 
•understanding  history;  second,  to  understand  the  adaptation  of  the 
earth's  forms  and  phenomena  to  life ;  third,  as  the  proper  beginning  of 
the  study  of  the  normal  sciences.  We  try  to  teach  history  so  that  pupils 
may  form  a  great  liking  for  reading  in  this  direction,  and  that  they  may 
acquire  a  method  by  which  they  can  take  in  the  great  leading  facts  of 
history. 


PENMANSHIP. 


Question.   How  do  you  teach  writing  ? 

Answer.  We  begin  by  writing  familiar  words  on  the  blackboard, 
which  the  child  copies  as  a  whole  on  his  slate.  Then  little  instances,  in 
which  those  words  appear,  are  constructed  on  the  board  and  carried  off, 
and  thus  the  child  proceeds.  Further  on,  the  letters  themselves  are 
taught,  beginning  with  the  letter  "i,"  then  to  "u,"  and  "w,"  and  so  on. 
It  is  of  great  importance  to  teach  them  to  write  carefully  from  the  first. 

Q.   When  would  you  begin  to  teach  the  child  to  write  ? 

A.  Just  as  soon  as  he  becomes  acquainted  with  me  and  the  school,  — 
when  he  feels  at  home.  Teach  technical  writing  from  the  start.  Begin 
with  one  letter,  not  with  principles.  Keep  at  it  as  long  as  you  please. 
Technical  writing  is  a  separate  exercise ;  it  is  not  to  be  connected  with 
copying ;  copying  is  done  without,  technical  writing  with,  counting. 

Q.  You  seem  to  insist  upon  perfect  work  in  writing  at  the  board  by 
the  teacher. 

A.  Yes ;  that  is  so.  Nothing  but  perfect  work.  Tlie  child  at  first 
will  pass  in  crude  work,  but  your  perfect  work  will  soon  enable  the  child 
to  pass  in  perfect  work.  The  subject  should  be  taught  very  thoroughly 
in  the  lowest  primary  grades.  Continual,  persistent  practice  should  be 
kept  up  on  one  letter  at  a  time  until  it  is  mastered.  The  progress  at 
first  may  be  slow,  but  future  progress  will  be  rapid.  Quality  of  work, 
not  quantity,  is  demanded. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  223 


SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 


Question.   How  would  you  open  the  school  in  the  morning  ? 

Answer.  By  reading  a  short  selection;  or,  by  reciting,  —  teacher  lead- 
ing, using  a  very  low  voice,  —  followed  by  chanting  the  Lord's  Prayer 
in  a  low,  sweet,  and  reverent  tone,  and  by  singing  a  pretty,  childlike 
hymn  or  song. 

Q.  Would  you  teach  manners  and  morals  directly?  that  is,  in  set 
lectures,  or  incidentally  ? 

A.  I  would  riot  teach  manners  and  morals  through  set  lectures,  but  by 
continued  daily  application  of  the  duties  and  attention  due  each  other ; 
for  instance,  if  a  class  wish  to  enter  the  room,  I  would  have  the  leader 
knock  at  the  door,  and  wait  until  it  is  opened,  and-  request  the  teacher  to 
extend  a  hearty  welcome  to  the  pupils  ;  for  example,  the  teacher,  on  the 
approach  of  the  pupils,  says  "  Good  morning,  children ;  how  do  you  do  ?  " 
The  pupils  acknowledge  it  with  a  bow,  and  quietly  pass  to  their  seats. 

Q.   What  would  you  do  the  first  day  of  school  ? 

A.  In  the  first  place,  you  want  to  grasp  your  little  pupil  warmly  by 
the  hand,  to  let  him  know  that  you  love  him.  Then  lead  him  into  the 
school-room,  not  a  prison-like  apartment,  with  high,  bare  walls,  but  a  nice 
warm  room,  with  tinted  wall-paper,  plants  in  the  windows  to  give  it  a 
cheerful  appearance,  and  a  desk  for  our  little  pupil,  to  give  him  individu- 
ality. Added  to  all  these  things,  you  must  have  that  one  great  element 
necessary  to  the  successful  education  of  the  young,  —  a  good  teacher.  Xo 
amount  of  adornment  will  take  the  place  of  a  good  teacher.  Xow  that 
we  have  our  little  fellow  in  homelike  surroundings,  what  shall  we  do  with 
him?  We  don't  say,  "Get  down  in  that  seat,  or  I'll  whip  you,"  but  we 
kindly  conduct  him  to  his  individual  desk,  and  impress  him  with  the  ne- 
cessity of  order.  Not  graveyard  order,  for  that  is  horrible,  hypocritical, 
and  universal ;  but  a  degree  of  quietness  consistent  with  the  progressive 
study-hall.  Let  the  little  man  talk  to  his  neighbor  if  he  wants,  and  the 
knowledge  of  this  privilege  will  prevent  him  from  abusing  it.  The  next 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  set  his  little  faculties  to  work  preparatory  to  devel- 
oping them  mentally  and  morally.  To  do  this  effectually,  we  take  the 
child  along  step  by  step  in  nature's  own  course. 

Q.   How  do  you  manage  to  keep  children  in  order  ? 

A.   By  good  teaching  and  proper  treatment. 

Q.   If  you  had  a  class  of  sixty,  what  would  you  do  ? 

A.  In  the  first  place,  thirty  pupils  is  enough  for  any  teacher;  but, 
having  sixty  scholars,  they  should  be  divided  into  groups  of  ten,  accord- 
ing to  their  mental  calibre.  One  group  may  be  at  low-set  blackboards, 
drawing,  writing,  etc. ;  another  group  at  the  block-table,  building  bridges. 


224  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

houses,  and  churches ;  another  group  at  the  sand-table,  making  hills  and 
valleys ;  another  group  at  their  desks,  writing  and  drawing  on  their  slates ; 
and  another  braiding  splints,  weaving,  arranging  shoe-pegs,  stringing 
beads,  etc.  Ten  minutes  is  long  enough  to  keep  the  pupils  at  any  partic- 
ular work,  when  a  movement  should  be  made,  such  as  marching,  gymnas- 
tics, and  singing.  The  dull  scholars  should  be  very  carefully  treated  with 
slower  work,  and  never  be  made  to  feel  that  they  are  dull,  and  after  a 
time  you  will  find  the  dull  boys  overtaking  the  brighter  ones.  They  seem 
to  retain  better  because  they  are  slow  in  getting  it.  Slow  and  sure  is  a 
good  motto. 

Q.   How  do  you  manage  to  keep  order  ? 

A.   Order  takes  care  of  itself,  if  you  have  the  attractive  power. 

Q.    How  would  you  secure  order? 

A.  Order  limits  energy  to  the  work  of  the  school ;  that  is,  the  best 
order  in  which  the  best  work  can  be  done ;  order  is  not  a  question  of 
silence.     The  criterion  is  work. 

Q.    Tell  us  some  means  of  securing  order. 

A.  The  attractiveness  of  the  school-house,  the  pleasure  in  the  work, 
confines  the  energy  to  the  work.  All  hrain-worTc  gives  either  pain  or  pleas- 
ure. Order  limits  energy  to  the  work  of  the  school.  Concentration  of 
work  is  a  means  of  securing  order.  That  is  the-  best  order  in  which  the 
hest  work  can  be  done.  Order  is  not  a  question  of  noise  or  silence ;  the 
criterion  is  work.  Play  is  nature's  method  of  giving  work.  Be  sure  to 
make  the  school-room  and  its  surroundings  attractive.  Let  the  work 
attract.  See  that  the  work  is  made  a  pleasure.  Confine  the  energy  of 
the  pupils  to  the  work.  Let  them  draw  ;  the  child  has  a  gTeat  desire  to 
express  thought  by  pictures.     This  is  a  driving  power. 

Q.    Do  your  teachers  govern  much  ? 

A.  No;  the  teachers  give  the  pupils  freedom.,  and  let  them  govern 
themselves.  Busy  work  worketh  wonders.  Order  takes  care  of  itself,  if 
you  have  the  attractive  power. 

Q.   Would  you  permit  communication  ? 

A.  Keep  children  at  work,  at  work  that  they  love,  and  communication 
will  take  care  of  itself. 

Q.  Do  you  believe  in  rigid  school  government  in  the  lowest  primary 
grades  ? 

A.  The  children  in  the  lowest  primary  grades  should  not  be  obliged 
to  toe  the  mark  and  stand  at  a  position  of  rest.  Let  them  enjoy  home- 
like surroundings,  and,  act  childlike.  Teachers  who  "  hear  pupils  recite," 
"  keepers  of  school,"  might  question  the  propriety  in  extending  such  lib- 
erties to  the  little  ones.  Teachers  should  pay  but  little  attention  to  the 
changes  in  position,  but  keep  busily  at  work,  making  the  subject  so  attrac- 
tive that  the  children  will  be  eager  to  catch  at  everything  new. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  225 

Q.  Are  not  some  means  used  in  government,  by  teachers,  that  are 
questionable  ? 

A.  Yes.  Continued  watching  on  the  part  of  a  teacher  to  discover 
the  weak  side  of  the  pupil ;  acting  the  part  of  a  detective  instead  of  a 
teacher ;  using  bitter  sarcasm  in  the  presence  of  the  school ;  adverting  to 
the  low  standard  of  instruction  before  you  took  charge  of  the  school; 
movements  in  order  to  express  the  hideousness  of  some  childlike  freak ; 
taking  names ;  and  a  score  of  petty  things  utterly  unworthy  the  teacher. 
No  one  mean  is  so  abominable  as  taking  names ;  the  pupils  will  hold  a 
council  of  war,  and  openly  denounce  such  a  course, 

Q.   Your  school-room  seemed  so  pleasant ;  —  how  made  so  ? 

A.  The  teachers  and  pupils  try  to  outdo  each  other  in  this  particular. 
The  board  of  education  supply  us  liberally,  also,  with  apparatus  and 
objects  for  teaching. 

Q.    The  children  were  not  uneasy  and  restless.  How  do  you  prevent  it? 

A.  We  use  the  natural  restlessness  and  curiosity  as  potent  factors  in 
sound  mental  growth.  This  is  wisely  directed  by  pleasant  and  earnest 
teachers.  We  keep  the  children  busy  and  happy  in  using  their  own  power 
for  their  own  progress. 

Q.  We  understand  you.  But  all  teachers  are  not  pleasant  and  earnest. 
What  sliall  we  do  ? 

A.  We  sifted  out  the  poor  teachers,  —  the  weak  ones,  —  and  that  is  the 
way  to  do  it.  Our  teachers  are  intelligent,  and  use  tact ;  able  to  devise 
methods  marked  by  their  own  individuality. 

Q.  Yoar  teachers  seemed  so  pleasant  and  the  pupils  so  happy.  Is  this 
general  ? 

A.  We  do  not  believe  in  the  stereotyped  expressions  of  too  many  who 
pretend  to  be  teachers.  Such  expressions  as  "  Pay  attention,"  "  Stop  your 
whispering."  "  Go  to  your  seat,"  "  Stay  in  at  recess,"  "  Study  yom*  lesson," 
"  Stay  in  and  study  your  lesson,"  "  You'll  get  a  whipping,"  should  not  be 
heard  in  the  school-room. 

Q.    How  do  you  work  to  attain  such  homelike  feeling  ? 

A.  We  endeavor  to  adapt  all  instruction  and  criticism  to  the  child's 
•capacity  and  temperament,  so  that  he  shall  never  get  discouraged,  but 
become  more  and  more  confident  of  his  own  power. 

Q.    Do  you  approve  of  keeping  children  in  at  recess  ? 

A.   No. 

Q.   Would  not  too  much  work  produce  disquietude  ? 

A.  If  the  struggle  to  do  is  too  great,  if  there  is  weariness,  the  charac- 
ter of  the  work  as  a  whole  is  wrong.  Sometimes  the  voice  produces 
wearisomeness.  Oh,  the  constant  annoyance  of  a  terrible  voice  !  Again, 
the  mannerism  of  the  teacher,  dress,  —  all  these  have  a  tendency  to  make 
or  unmake  a  school.     The  power  to  do,  —  singing,  drawkig,  writing,  read- 


226  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

ing, — the  work  of  the  teacher,  is  an  incentive;  the  child  sees  the  work, 
and  says,  "  My  teacher  can  do  it ;  so  can  I." 

Q.    Do  you  think  that  little  children  should  be  trained  to  work  silently  ? 

A.  I  do  not  advocate  a  graveyard  stillness  in  school.  Oh,  the  hum  of 
busy  work !     Precision  when  restrained  is  abuse. 

Q.  I  saw  the  children  in  the  lowest  primary  grades  run  to  their  seats. 
Does  not  this  cause  disorder  ? 

A.  Oh,  no ;  this  is  natural ;  it  pleases  the  little  ones,  and  they  like  it ; 
and  really  it  is  productive  of  good  order. 

Q.   Do  you  believe  in  corporal  punishment  ? 

A.  Corporal  punishment  is  a  weakness ;  a  teacher  may  do  well  that 
manages  a  school  with  it,  but  he  does  better  who  manages  a  school  without 
it.  Teaching  is  an  art.  It  is  said  that  teachers  are  born,  not  made  ;  — 
we  have  made  ours.  With  the  rational  teacher,  discipline  takes  care  of 
itself.  We  give  the  children  a  great  deal  of  freedom,  and  they  work  up 
to  good  order. 

Q.    What  will  banish  corporal  punishment  ? 

A.  Corporal  punishment  is  a  substitute  for  the  weakness  of  the  teacher. 
If  the  will  is  governed  by  reason,  —  not  unreason,  such  as  moods,  troubles, 
sorrows,  —  the  order  of  the  school  will  be  looked  upon  as  a  means,  not  an 
end.  The  teacher  should  go  to  the  school-room  in  good,  high  health.  If 
you  are  cross,  stop  teaching ;  if  you  are  sick,  let  the  children  do  the  work. 
Rational  teaching  will  banish  corporal  punishment  from  the  school-room. 
Have  the  courage  to  stand  up  and  work.  Courage  is  quietness ;  bluster  is 
weakness. 

Q.   Do  you  give  any  attention  to  physical  culture  ? 

A.  Yes.  Physical  culture  receives  attention.  We  believe  that  the 
moral  and  mental  natures  may  be  entirely  changed  by  neglect  of  the 
body.  Every  child  not  deformed  by  nature,  —  and  even  those  deformed, 
—  may  be  benefited  by  proper  exercise.  I  would  have  daily  exercises  in 
physical  training,  and  would  pay  special  attention  to  the  way  in  which 
the  children  stand  and  walk.  The  change  in  the  bearing  of  children 
should  be  noticeable. 

Q.   Would  you  give  much  attention  to  military  movement  in  school  ? 

A.  Just  enough  to  insure  a  correct  carriage  of  the  body,  and  perfect 
step  in  marching.     I  would  have  the  pupils  pass  in  and  out  to  music. 

Q.    What  means  of  recreation  do  you  furnish  ? 

A.  In  nearly  all  the  Quincy  schools  the  children  sing  fifteen  minutes 
each  day.  This  furnishes  a  pleasant  means  of  recreation,  improves  the 
voice  materially,  aids  the  instructor  in  the  teaching  of  reading,  and,  what 
is  of  far  greater  importance,  is  beneficial  as  an  aid  in  securing  to  the 
children  health. 

Q.   Do  you  practise  physical  exercises  ? 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  227 

A.  Daily  physical  exercises  are  held  in  all  tlie  Quincy  schools,  under 
charge  of  a  competent  teacher.  Special  regard  is  given  to  the  way  in 
which  the  children  stand  and  walk.  Prizes  have  been  given  to  the  best 
schools,  and  also  to  the  best  individual  gyn)nasts  in  some  of  the  schools, 
thus  inducing  a  healthy  rivalry  among  teachers  and  children  that  has 
resulted  in  much  good. 

Q.    How  would  you  manage  a  stubborn  boy  ? 

A.  The  will  should  be  guided  by  reason,  not  unreason.  Do  not  mag- 
nify the  faults  of  the  pupils.  Give  them  the  right  way,  and  they  will 
forget  to  do  the  wrong  way,  because  they  take  pleasure  in  doing  what  is 
right.  The  studies  of  school  can  be  made  a  constant  delight.  For  in- 
stance, reading  may  be  made  a  constant  delight  by  the  pictures  behind 
the  words.  Reading,  alone,  may  be  taught  so  as  to  make  the  child  hungry 
for  reading. 

Q.   How  do  you  manage  to  keep  the  slates  in  a  cleanly  condition  ? 

A.  Each  child  uses  a  sponge  to  erase  the  matter  on  the  slate.  All 
slates  are  erased  at  the  same  time.  This  should  be  made  a  playful  exer- 
cise, and  let  the  children  work  at  it  vigorously. 

Q.   What  books  should  the  teachers  read  ? 

A.  First,  study  psychology  in  Porter,  Hamilton,  and  Spencer.  Mas- 
ter the  subject  of  sense-perception  before  you  take  any  other  step.  Read 
Joseph  Payne's  "  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Education  " ;  "  Lectures  on 
Teaching,"  by  J.  G.  Fitch  ;  Tate's  "  Philosophy  of  Education  " ;  Garvey's 
"  Human  Culture  " ;  Spencer  on  "  Education " ;   and  kindred  books. 

Q.  Do  not  some  teachers  imitate  too  closely,  in  order  to  do  rational 
work? 

A.  Above  all,  in  the  school-room,  ask  yourself  at  every  step,  "  Why  do 
I  take  this  step  ?  Have  I  a  good  reason  for  it  ?  Am  I  doing  this  because 
I  was  taught  so,  or  because  my  superintendent  tells  me  to  do  it  this  way, 
or  because  it  is  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  child's  mind  f  " 

Q.    How  would  you  proceed  to  teach  morals  ? 

A.  The  teacher  should  encourage  the  pupils  to  confess  their  faults ; 
the  teacher  should  not,  by  w  ord  or  act,  deceive  the  children.  The  rough- 
est children  may  be  won  over  on  the  side  of  right  through  fair  dealing. 
The  whole  tendency  of  school  work  should  be  to  elevate,  ennoble,  and  re- 
fine, —  the  pupils  should  realize  that  they  must  be  distinguished  by  good 
manners,  and  that  good  manners  are  the  outgrowth  of  good  morals. 

Q.   Tell  us  more  about  objective  teaching. 

A.  Next,  numbers  are  taught  objectively,  and  the  operations  with 
numbers  in  the  same  way.  Much  attention  is  given  to  lessons  which  de- 
velop the  power  to  use  language  as  the  expression  of  the  ideas  which  the 
pupils  acquire  in  these  lessons.  Writmg  and  drawing  are  prominent  ex- 
ercises.    The  pupils  begin  to  write  their  words  as  soon  as  they  begin  to 


228  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

read ;  and  they  continue  the  daily  expression  of  thoughts  in  writing.  Much 
attention  is  given  to  teaching  a  good  handwriting.  He  started  with  the 
primary  schools,  and  made  primary  reading  his  first  object ;  required  all 
his  teachers  to  teach  the  subject  by  the  objective  word-method. 

Q.    Do  you  believe  in  pupil-teachers  ? 

A.  Yes.  You  will  find  in  all  of  the  primary  grades  pupil-teachers  \ 
you  will  see  these  young  women  looking  over  the  work  on  the  slates,  of 
their  dictation  exercise  the  day  before,  not  marking  the  child  for  errors,  but 
marking  the  errors  of  the  child. 

Q.    How  do  you  manage  with  dull  children  ? 

A.  I  would  take  half  an  hour  each  day,  when  necessary,  to  bring  on  a 
dull  child,  or  encourage  it.  Emulation,  and  not  punishment,  is  the  power 
used. 

Q.    Should  not  pupils  be  permitted  to  ask  questions  themselves? 

A.  Yes.  Instead  of  the  teacher  asking  questions,  permit  the  pupils  to 
question  each  other ;  the  pupils  should  ask  such  questions  as  will  require 
a  full  sentence  in  reply.     Pupils  will  ask  apt  questions. 

Q.    Can  children  learn,  under  a  feeling  of  timidity  ? 

A.  No ;  not  nmch  that  will  remain  with  them.  Self-consciousness 
must  be  learned ;  make  the  child  feel  at  home,  before  either  reading  or 
writing  is  begun.  Three  or  four  months  should  be  spent  in  generating 
power,  getting  the  range  of  the  child's  ideas,  —  a  sense  training. 

Q.  Suppose  a  child  has  been  absent  from  school,  and  some  of  the 
work  has  been  omitted,  what  then  ? 

A.   If  some  of  the  work  has  been  omitted,  —  not  been  done,  —  do  it. 

Q.    If  a  child  has  been  poorly  taught,  how  would  you  proceed? 

A.    Don't  discourage  him  and  try  too  much. 

Q.   V\^hy  are  some  pupils  so  thoughtless  ? 

A.  Primary  work  should  be  well  done.  It  was  seldom  that  grammar- 
school  teachers  received  classes  well  prepared  for  that  grade.  The  purpose 
of  schooling  was  to  develop  the  mind.  Sometimes  teachers  made  an  effort 
to  teach  words  only,  which  he  thought  was  a  mistake ;  children  should  be 
taught  to  think,  for  only  by  thought  could  the  mind  of  the  pupil  be 
developed.  We  learn  to  do  a  thing  by  doing  it,  doing  it  under  careful 
criticism  and  direction,  doing  it  better  every  time  until  it  is  done  well. 

Q.   How  long  would  you  keep  pupils  at  a  task  ? 

A.  Pupils  in  the  lowest  primary  grades  should  be  kept  at  their  tasks 
for  ten  minutes  at  a  time  ;  frequently  they  work,  if  there  is  pleasure  in  it, 
for  a  much  longer  time. 

Q.    Do  you  believe  in  concert  exercises  ? 

A.  To  a  limited  extent.  They  may  be  used  to  fix  facts  in  the  mind, 
but  there  is  a  tendency  to  destroy  individuality. 

Q.   Should  primary  classes  be  heard  frequently  ? 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  229 

A.  Pupils  in  the  lower  grades  require  less  time,  but  greater  frequency, 
in  class  exercises  than  those  more  advanced;  a  great  deal  of  repetition  is 
necessary,  and  at  first  the  work  proceeds  but  slowly.  "  Slow  and  sure" 
should  be  the  primary  teacher's  motto. 

Q.    Should  each  day's  lesson  be  reviewed  ? 

A.  Divide  the  class  in  sections  and  have  them  alternate.  The  object 
is  to  teach  concentration  of  thought,  and  to  avoid  stammering  and  hesi- 
tancy.    Each  day  review  the  lesson  of  the  preceding  day. 

Q.  Do  you  think  it  best  for  the  teacher  to  mark  pupils  at  each 
recitation  ? 

A.   No.     It  is  mechanical,  and  nothing  more  than  a  staging  process. 

Q.   Do  your  teachers  resort  to  individual  criticism  ? 

A.  Individual  criticism  is  looked  upon  to  be  an  evil,  as  it  has  a  ten- 
dency to  restrain  free  expression  of  thought.  I  do  not  believe  in  calling 
names,  particularly  in  cases  of  correction.  It  is  not  best  to  make  a  mem- 
ber of  a  class  feel  that  he  is  looked  upon  as  a  culprit.  Individuality  should 
not  be  suppressed,  but  stimulated. 

Q.   Do  the  pupils  correct  each  other's  mistakes  ? 

A.  There  was  no  smirking  of  the  class,  no  lifting  of  hands  to  call  atten- 
tion conspicuously  to  the  fault.  The  teacher  quietly  wrote  "  instead  "  on  the 
board.  "  How  do  you  pronounce  this  word  ?  "  Class  in  chorus,  including 
the  delinquent,  "  Instead !  "  It  was  a  polite  way  of  correction,  instead  of 
hypocritical  snapping  up  of  each  other's  slips  that  makes  over-righteous 
little  critics,  I  fear,  of  some  of  our  school  children ;  and  it  was  another 
witness  to  the  way  in  which,  as  Miss  Morse  had  said,  "  the  class  brings 
the  duller  ones  along  with  it."  As  the  reading  proceeds,  —  "  Put  in  an- 
other word  for  '  localities.'  "  Child  reads  the  sentence  again  and  says 
"place  "  as  he  goes  on,  without  stopping,  to  the  end.  The  teacher  makes 
this  synonym-exercise,  I  notice,  at  all  the  hard  words,  and  the  substitute 
is  made  as  the  reader  goes  on,  showing  that  the  entire  paragraph  is  under- 
stood. Something  following  about  the  water  in  Holland  being  older  than 
Adam,  and  yet  the  Dutchmen  cannot  drink  it,  —  "  Why  is  this  ?  Who's 
Adam  ?  Why  cannot  they  drink  the  canal  water  ?  "  "  Because  it  is  salt 
and  dirty."  "Can  you  think  of  any  other  situation  in  which  people 
would  have  nothing  to  drink  ?  Here  it  says,  '  Water,  water  everywhere, 
and  not  a  drop  to  drink.'  "  "  Caspian  Sea,"  calls  out  a  boy,  going  far 
inland  for  a  comparison. 

Q.   In  written  exercises  of  the  pupil,  do  you  mark  all  the  mistakes  ? 

A.  No.  The  teacher  should  not  mark  every  mistake  at  first,  only 
errors  that  are  general,  and  then  explain  all  the  corrections  to  the  class. 
Criticisms  should  be  adapted  to  the  child's  capacity,  so  that  no  pupil  may 
be  discouraged,  but  become  more  confident  of  his  own  powers. 

Q.  Would  you  require  pupils  to  commit  to  memory  pages  from  text- 
books ? 


230  QUINCY   SCHOOL  WORK. 

A.  I  would  not  require  pupils  to  commit  to  memory  pages  from  tlie 
text-books,  without  understanding  them;  pupils  should  be  taught  t^o 
think,  and  to  express  their  thoughts  correctly. 

Q.   When  should  the  will-power  be  used  ? 

A.  When  attractiveness  fails,  then  the  will  should  be  used ;  always  to 
be  tempered  by  reason,  not  unreason. 

Q.  You  insist  upon  absolute  perfection  of  work.  When  and  how  are 
corrections  made  ? 

A.  To  mark  every  mistake  would  be  a  task ;  but  this  is  not  done  at 
each  exercise,  nor,  indeed,  is  it  oftener  than  occasionally  done.  Ordina- 
rily these  written  exercises  are  corrected  as  a  whole,  that  is,  the  errors 
that  are  general,  are  marked,  spoken  of,  and  their  correction  explained  to 
the  class,  and  when  the  next  set  of  papers  are  looked  over  these  errors 
are  looked  for,  and  if  not  found,  others  are  selected  and  hunted  down  in 
the  same  way. 

Q.  Suppose  the  pupil  continues  to  make  errors  after  corrections  are 
made? 

A.  If  an  error  is  persisted  in,  the  writer  is  spoken  to  personally,  but 
as  a  rule,  individual  criticism  is  held  to  be  an  evil,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to 
restrain  free  expression  of  thought. 

Q.    About  how  many- pupils  should  each  class  contain? 

A.  Minimum,  thirty,  in  the  lowest  primary  grades ;  maximum,  fifty, 
in  the  highest  primary  and  granunar  grades. 

Q.   "\^'Tiat  is  the  Quincy  System  ? 

A.  The  Quincy  System,  so-called,  is  an  attempt  to  apply  the  science 
of  education.  It  is  only  an  attempt,  and  compared  with  what  can  be 
done  for  children  in  public  schools,  it  is  far  from  being  a  complete  suc- 
cess. The  results  of  the  work  in  the  Quincy  schools  mark  the  transition 
from  the  old,  lifeless  text  ways  of  teaching  to  the  living  way,  which  will 
develop  the  whole  mind  and  the  whole  man.  The  so-called  Quincy 
methods,  learned  and  simply  imitated,  would  produce  a  result  as  poor  as 
methods  which  we  are  trying  to  avoid.  Now  to  answer  the  question. 
On  the  one  side  is  the  nature  of  the  mind  to  be  developed,  on  the  other, 
the  nature  of  the  subject  with  which  the  mind  is  to  be  developed.  The 
perfect  adaptation  in  teaching  of  the  subject  to  the  mind  is  the  perfect 
method. 

Q.   What  is  the  object  of  the  Quincy  System  ? 

A.  The  object  of  the  Quincy  System  is  to  transform  the  public 
schools  from  machines  to  living  organisms ;  to  make  growth  take  the 
place  of  drill ;  to  put  life  and  soul  into  routine,  and  make  the  school- 
room a  pleasure  house  rather  than  a  weary  prison. 

Q.    Do  you  claim  that  your  system  is  new  ? 

A.   I  want  to  say  in  the  beginning  that  I  present  nothing  new.     I 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  231 

have  been  accused  of  inventing  a  system  of  teaching.  Systems  of  this 
character  are  not  invented,  they  are  discovered ;  and  the  one  I  speak  of 
is  as  old  as  Adam.  It  is  an  old  system,  and  that  is  one  great  reason  why 
it  should  be  universally  adopted.     It  is  old  and  good. 

Q.   Where  did  you  begin  to  reform  the  teaching  ? 

A.  In  the  primary  schools, —  and  made  primary  reading  the  first  object ; 
then  required  all  the  teachers  to  teach  the  subject  by  the  objective  word- 
method ;  taught  reading  alone,  —  not  spelling  before  reading.  The  chil- 
dren learned  to  read  without  knowing  the  alphabet.  Ideas  first,  then 
language  as.  the  expression  of  ideas  brought  in  much  reading  besides  that 
found  in  the  primary-school  readers. 

Q.  Are  members  of  our  boards  of  education  qualified  to  supervise 
schools  ? 

A.  The  greatest  discovery  of  the  last  500  years  was  that  of  a  few 
school-committee  men  of  Quincy,  who  discovered  that  they  did  not  know 
how  to  superintend  schools. 

Q.  Should  the  power  of  selecting  a  superintendent  be  vested  in  a 
board  of  education? 

A.  No  objection,  if  intelligent  men  are  chosen ;  otherwise,  the  super- 
intendent better  be  appointed. 

Q.    Should  the  superintendent  be  held  responsible  for  results  ? 

A.  The  superintendent  should  be  held  responsible,  but  only  on  condi- 
tions that  he  gets  power.  The  principal  should  say  to  the  teacher,  "I 
hold  you  responsible  for  real  work,  real  results."  This  condition  should 
be  understood,  —  that  the  teacher  be  left  free  to  w^ork  out  her  own  salva- 
tion. The  test  should  be  general  results,  tested  by  examination,  inspec- 
tion, visits. 

Q.   Do  parents  appreciate  good  teaching  ? 

A.  It  is  a  pleasant  thing  to  notice  the  increasing  appreciation  of  good 
teachers,  on  the  part  of  parents  who  have  children  under  their  care. 

Q.    Should  parents  teach  ? 

A.  I  would  prefer  not,  because  teaching  is  a  great  art,  which  few  can 
master.  Let  parents  simply  keep  their  children  clean  and  healthy,  and 
leave  the  teaching  to  be  done  in  school.  Hearing  recitations  is  not  teach- 
ing, by  any  means.  Teaching  is  the  bringing  of  new  ideas  into  the  mind 
through  objects ;  classifying  ideas;  comparing  them,  and  combining  them 
into  creatures  of  the  imagination.  All  that  a  teacher  can  do  is  to  lead 
the  child's  mind  to  act,  to  acquire  knowledge.  Rote  learning  is  simply 
inculcating  stupidity,  both  in  pupil  and  teacher. 

Q.    Do  you  approve  of  class  criticism  ? 

A.   At  Quincy,  class  criticism — something  apart  from  the  teacher's — 
was  directed  to  substance  rather  than  form 
tions. 


232  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

Q.    What  promotes  regular  attendance  ? 

A.  Means  of  stimulating  attendance,  behavior,  and  study,  outside  of 
real  teaching,  are  becoming  less  and  less  necessary.  The  results  seem  to 
prove  that  the  attractive  influence  of  real  teaching  will  render  punish- 
ment and  compulsion  in  attendance  unnecessary.  The  moral  effect  of 
filling  children's  heads  full  of  good  thoughts,  and  their  hands  full  of 
pleasant,  absorbing  work,  is  the  formation  of  good  habits  of  thought  and 
action. 

Q.   Do  you  approve  of  requiring  the  children  to  study  at  home  ? 

A.  I  would  not  require  small  children  to  take  books  home  for  study. 
I  do  not  like  to  see  children  burdened  with  books ;  five  hours'  daily  study 
is  enough.  The  children,  on  the  way  to  school,  should  act  childlike,  but 
not  childish. 

Q.  Would  you  consider  it  a  serious  matter  for  a  pupil  to  make  a 
mistake  ? 

A.  No.  I  would  not  permit  teachers  to  crush  out  errors,  nor  make 
a  culprit  of  the  child  who  makes  a  mistake. 

Q.   I  saw  no  laughing  at  mistakes.     Do  you  forbid  it  ? 

A.  No.  It  is  not  a  crime  to  make  a  mistake ;  no  child  is  ashamed  to 
acknowledge  it,  nor  does  he  try  to  conceal  it. 

Q.   Do  you  believe  in  courses  of  study  ? 

A.  Yes,  when  they  give  the  minimum  of  the  amount  of  work  to  be 
done,  they  are  necessary  as  a  general  guide.  No,  w  hen  they  give  the  max- 
imum of  the  amount  of  work,  for  then  they  cause  teachers  to  cram  for  ex- 
aminations. As  a  whole,  it  is  best  not  to  conform  to  the  course  of  study, 
nor  fear  superintendents. 

Q.   Do  you  approve  of  story-telling  in  school  ? 

A.   Yes.     Every  teacher  should  be  a  good  story-teller. 

Q.    Are  books  used  to  any  considerable  extent  in  Quincy? 

A.  To  this  question  I  am  obliged  to  make  both  an  affirmative  and  a 
negative  reply.  Affirmatively,  books  are  used,  frequently  referred  to  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  valuable  information  beyond  the  possible  indi- 
vidual experience  of  the  pupils.  Negatively,  books  are  as  infrequently 
used  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  that  know-ledge  which  comes  loithin  the 
possible  individual  experience  of  the  child.  Books  which  are  usually 
termed  "  text-books  "  are  seldom  seen  in  the  hands  of  pupils  or  teachers 
inside  of  the  school-room.  All  books  from  which  useful  information  can 
be  obtained  are  constantly  sought  after  by  both  teacher  and  pupil,  not  for 
the  purpose  of  memorizing  the  text,  but  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  them 
to  absorb  the  ideas  contained  in  them. 

Q.  I  noticed  that  the  children  were  able  to  repeat  many  lines  of  choice 
poetry.     How  do  you  proceed  to  get  the  results  ? 

A.    All  children  above  the  lowest  primary  grades  learn  at  least  four 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  233 

lines  of  poetry  each  week.  The  teachers,  without  exception,  enter  into 
this  with  enthusiasm,  and  all  succeed  in  a  greater  or  less  degree.  Schools 
which  had  accomplished  most  with  this  exercise  made  a  degree  of  improve- 
ment in  reading  and  in  the  use  of  language  more  marked  than  the  others. 
And  besides  being  an  excellent  practice  for  the  cultivation  of  memory,  it 
will  be  a  source  of  much  pleasure  to  the  pupils  in  future  years. 

Q.  Some  teachers  as  they  grow  old  become  cross.  Do  you  think  that 
such  persons  are  fit  for  teaching  ? 

A.  Xo.  The  teacher  should  ever  be  young,  and  take  delight  in  child- 
like sports.    Be  a  child  with  the  child,  see  how  it  grows,  and  grow  with  it. 

Q.   What  should  a  pupil  accomplish  in  a  grammar  school  ? 

A.  When  the  child  leaves  the  school,  he  should  be  able  to  read  well 
and  understandingly,  at  sight,  ordinary  reading ;  speak  the  English  lan- 
guage correctly ;  write  a  letter  in  a  neat,  rapid,  and  legible  hand ;  perform 
any  arithmetical  problem  he  would  be  likely  to  meet  in  practical  life ; 
and  be  able  to  think  and  reason. 

Q.   Have  you  means  of  ventilating  your  rooms  ? 

A.  No  modern  means.  I  would  throw  open  the  doors  and  windows 
at  recess  and  at  night.  While  the  doors  and  windows  are  open  during 
the  day,  I  would  immediately  put  the  pupils  through  some  physical 
exercise. 

Q.   Do  you  mark  pupils  for  "  what  is  perfect  recitations  "  ? 

A.  All  work  done  upon  the  slate  is  inspected  by  the  teacher,  and  com- 
mended in  proportion  to  its  merit.  No  permanent  record  of  merits  and 
demerits  is  kept  during  the  first  year,  but,  when  inspecting  the  slates,  the 
teacher  marks  a  slate  which  shows  but  indifferent  effort  on  the  part  of 
a  child,  with  a  stroke  of  a  blue  crayon ;  those  which  show  a  reasonable 
effort,  she  marks  with  the  "  silver  mark,"  or  white  crayon ;  and  an  unusual 
effort  is  honored  with  the  "  gold  mark,"  or  a  stroke  of  the  yellow  crayon. 
This  quiet  method  of  indicating  approval  excites  eager  anxiety  on  the 
part  of  the  children. 

Q.  Into  what  two  general  divisions  do  you  divide  the  work  of  the 
teacher  ? 

A.  Into  training  and  teaching.  Training  leads  to  the  formation  of  cor- 
rect and  skilful  habits  of  mechanical  execution,  as  seen  in  the  reproduction 
of  all  forms  of  language,  writing,  phonic  analysis,  spelling,  use  of  capital 
letters,  and  punctuation.  The  products  of  training  are  secondary  and 
subordinate  aims  of  school  work ;  most  of  them  are  simply  means  to  an 
end,  —  means  of  learning  well. 

Q.   What  order  of  talent  is  required  for  teaching? 

A.  There  is  no  place,  always  excepting  the  nursery,  where  one  is 
called  on  for  the  active  display  of  so  many  varieties  of  talent  and  ability 
as  in  the  school-room.     There  is  no  person,  except  the  mother,  who  needs 


234  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

to  be  so  capable,  so  accomplished,  so  consummate  in  methods  as  the 
teacher.  These  two — the  mother  and  the  teacher — make  the  scholar,  the 
orator,  the  statesman,  the  theologian,  the  man,  the  woman.  They  take 
the  tender,  pliable,  budding  nature,  and  surround  it  with  circumstances 
best  suited  to  its  individual  development.  For  each  child  has  a  nature  of 
its  own,  and  requires  special  treatment.  As  the  florist  gives  to  each  plant 
the  soil,  the  warmth,  the  moisture,  the  stinmlus,  the  sun,  the  shade ;  as  he 
prunes  it  at  one  time,  and  at  another  allows  it  to  flourish  in  wild  luxu- 
riance ;  so  the  mother,  the  teacher,  adapts  to  each  child,  according  to  its 
development,  to  its  needs,  the  special  culture  and  treatment  suited  to  it, 
changing  this  from  time  to  time  as  the  child  changes. 

Q.  Granting  scholarship,  what  feature  should  be  prominent  in  teach- 
ing? 

A.  Ingenuity  of  the  teacher  is  one  of  the  best  features  of  school  work. 
The  teacher  should  be  left  free  to  invent  new  ways  of  interesting  pupils. 

Q.    Is  not  the  majority  of  teaching  mechanical  routine  work. 

A.  Teachers  should  not  stop  at  the  books  placed  in  their  hands.  It 
should  be  their  greatest  j^leasure,  as  it  certainly  is  their  highest  privilege, 
to  point  out  to  their  children  the  books  to  read  at  home,  and  thus  to  give 
that  invaluable  lesson  which  is  now  so  seldom  learned,  —  how  to  go  alone. 
Nothing  can  be  done,  however,  so  long  as  school  remains  the  victim  of 
routine.  Immense  buildings,  costly  apparatus,  multitudes  of  studies,  for- 
mal parade  and  show  do  not  make  good  schools  or  good  scholars.  That 
school  is  good  in  which  the  work  is  done  intelligently  and  with  interest. 
That  school  is  bad  in  which  the  work  is  superficial,  unintelligent,  or  dull. 

Q.    What  is  the  difference  between  a  teacher  and  the  teacher  ? 

A.  He  thought  there  was  a  vast  difference  between  a  school-keeper 
and  a  real  teacher.  The  one  was  always  at  a  stand-still,  while  the  other 
was  continually  growing. 

Q.   Do  not  the  primary  teachers  attempt  to  teach  too  much  ? 

A.  All  good  things  were  of  slow  gTowth,  and  usually  the  slowest 
growth  was  the  fastest  in  the  long  run.  Object-lessons  were  condemned 
as  pernicious  and  repressive.  Too  much  was  required  of  the  child,  and 
the  facts  given  them  by  the  teacher  were  often  confusing.  There  should 
be  no  repression  or  set  way  of  teaching. 

Q.    Do  not  the  teachers  make  the  work  too  dilBcult  ? 

A.  Teachers  should  not  make  a  difficulty  for  the  pupil.  If  they  make 
a  difficulty,  and  lead  the  child  into  it,  and  cannot  get  him  out,  they  are  to 
blame. 

Q.    Should  freedom  be  granted  to  teachers  in  imparting  instruction  ? 

A.  Yes;  give  teachers  freedom  to  choose  what  they  please.  Poor 
teachers  will  cut  their  own  throats  with  freedom ;  good  ones  wull  save 
themselves.     Throw  all  the  responsibility  of  action  upon  the  teacher. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  235 

Q.   Do  you  hold  teachers  to  a  rigid  manner  of  doing  work  ? 

A.  There  is  much  freedom  and  ease  in  the  conduct  of  the  school  ex- 
ercises. The  children  are  orderly,  but  perfectly  at  ease  in  the  expression 
of  thought  and  feeling ;  and  they  are  happy  in  their  work.  The  teachers 
have  the  opportunity,  and  are  required  to  carry  out  normal  principles  and 
methods ;  and  this  in  all  the  schools. 

Q.  Should  teachers  be  required  to  instruct  children  before  they  know 
Avhat  to  do  ? 

A.  No ;  don't  ask  teachers  to  put  anything  in  practice  until  they  see 
and  understand  it. 

Q.   Should  the  superintendent  instruct  his  teachers  ? 

A.  Yes ;  the  superintendent  should  give  lessons  in  the  class-rooms, 
and  frequently  call  all  the  teachers  of  one  grade  together,  and  teach  and 
train  them  how  to  teach. 

Q.    How  should  he  proceed  to  instruct  the  teachers  ? 

A.  Take  up  one  point  at  a  time,  —  the  most  important,  —  and  work 
it  up ;  start  it  before  taking  up  a  new  one. 

Q.    Do  you  practise  holding  teachers'  meetings  ? 

A.  A  large  number  of  meetings  for  the  instruction  of  teachers  have 
been  held.  The  teachers,  one  and  all,  are  indefatigable  students  of  the 
science  and  art  of  teaching. 

Q.   Would  you  have  long  meetings  ? 

A.   No ;  short  meetings,  and  many  of  them. 

Q.    Would  you  make  it  obligatory,  on  the  part  of  teachers,  to  attend? 

A.    Optional  in  attendance. 

Q.   I  saw  no  mechanical  teaching.     Tell  us  how  to  do  away  with  it. 

A.  The  teachers  have  been  trained  to  do  the  work ;  they  know  how 
to  teach ;  they  do  rational  work ;  the  teachers  breathe  life,  growth,  and 
happiness  into  their  work. 

Q,.   You  ignore  text-books.     Will  not  that  make  teaching  difficult  ? 

A.  That  modern  ideas  should  be  bitterly  resisted  by  many  teachers 
trained  under  old  ideas  is  natural.  They  worship  the  text-book  as  a 
resource  in  time  of  trouble,  and  do  not  know  what  to  do  if  they  are  called 
on  to  rely  upon  themselves.  Yet  no  text-book,  however  good,  can  give 
what  must  be  given  to  make  teaching  effective.  Instruction  depends  for 
all  its  vitality  and  for  all  its  vigor  on  the  life  and  power  which  the  teacher 
can  put  into  his  talk.  Without  that,  the  best  of  books  must  be  dull  to 
school-children;  the  most  carefully  digested  course  must  become  mere 
humdrum  routine.  There  is  no  public  question  of  more  interest  and  of 
more  importance.  The  schools  do  not  do  the  work  they  might ;  they  do 
not  fill  the  place  they  should.  The  expense  at  which  they  are  carried  on 
is  crushing.  More  will  not  be  given  until  more  is  demanded  by  the  pub- 
lic ;  and  to  arouse  public  interest  and  call  public  attention  to  the  school 


236  QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK. 

question  as  it  now  stands  is  the  best  service  that  can  be  performed  for 
popular  education. 

Q.   Suppose  some  teachers  are  not  progressive,  how  would  you  proceed? 

A.  Put  your  work  where  it  will  do  the  most  good ;  help  the  teachers 
who  help  themselves,  let  the  others  alone. 

Q.   Should  worthless  teachers  be  kept  in  school? 

A.  If  the  superintendent  is  strong  enough  with  the  committee,  he 
should  weed  out  the  worthless  teachers.  Worthless  teachers  are  elements 
of  weakness,  —  only  weakness.  Many  a  comparatively  poor  teacher  may 
be  made  good,  and  even  excellent,  by  training  and  judicious  advice.  Edu- 
cate and  weed.  Old  teachers  are  the  worst;  God  alone  can  "change 
their  hearts." 

Q.  Why  do  some  teachers  fail  to  teach  thoroughly,  even  when  well 
grounded  in  the  principles  of  teaching  ? 

A.  Teachers  often  dissipate  their  power  by  too  much  charge  ;  they  do 
not  give  sufficient  drill  or  repetition. 

Q.  Your  teachers  seemed  uniformly  kind  and  ladylike ;  how  brought 
about  ? 

A.  Teachers  should  be  very  kind  to  the  little  ones,  and  always  be 
kind.  Harshness  and  brutality  should  never  be  exhibited  by  the  teacher. 
If  a  child  is  unrestful,  the  teacher  should  approach  it  and  tenderly  place 
it  in  its  proper  position.  Kindness  should  be  the  rule  of  the  school  and 
even  the  law  of  management.  The  children  should  be  made  as  happy  as 
possible.  The  teacher  should  be  so  true  and  kind  as  to  be  able  to  break 
up  all  rowdyism,  profanity,  and  wrong-doing. 

Q.  Are  not  some  teachers  too  self-conceited  ?  Does  not  the  teaching 
make  one  so  ? 

A.  Self-conceit  is  a  fault.  Study  to  find  out  your  faults;  have  a 
critic. 

Q.    Should  a  teacher  blunder  ? 

A.   A' teacher  must  have  the  courage  to  blunder. 

Q.  If  you  had  a  class  of  sixty  little  children,  how  would  you  manage 
to  teach  them  ? 

A.  Y^ou  ask,  "  If  I  had  a  class."  I  wouldn't  teach  so  many.  You 
may  be  obliged  to  do  it,  but  it  is  wicked,  —  yes,  it  is  cruel.  Thirty  little 
children  are  enough,  even  for  a  skilful  teacher.  Group  them ;  group  the 
children  according  to  their  ability  and  power  to  pay  attention,  with  eye 
and  ear  being  the  test.  Do  not  let  them  know  that  one  division  is  higher 
or  lower  than  another ;  tell  them  they  are  all  in  the  same  grade.  Groups 
run  into  classes.     In  the  second  year  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  group. 

Q.  Some  of  the  children  are  so  young  that  we  don't  know  what  to  do 
with  them. 

A.  Set  them  to  making  something,  —  if  nothing  more  than  making 
block  houses. 


QUINCY  SCHOOL  WORK.  287 

Q.   My  pupils  do  not  advance  equally.     Am  I  to  blame  ? 

A.  One  child  has  inborn  qualities,  and  needs  but  little  light,  —  he  will 
advance  in  spite  of  the  teacher ;  the  other  is  dull,  and  what  is  light  to  the 
other  child  is  darkness  to  him,  —  he  needs  extra  drill  and  training,  and 
the  point  must  be  repeated  until  a  sufficient  number  of  aggregations  are 
gathered  in  his  mind  to  make  a  permanent  impression. 


m. 


LECTURES  ON  THE  SCIENCE  ANB  THE  ART 
OP  TEACHING. 


LECTURES  ON  THE  SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART 
OF  TEACHING. 


READING. 

I.  Preparation  for  Reading.  1.  Biography  of  the  author.  2.  Get- 
ting the  sense  of  the  sentence.  3.  Getting  the  sense  of  the  sub- 
ject.   4.  Giving  the  sense.     5.  Telling  the  sense. 

Biography,  a.  Early  life :  birth,  childhood,  youth,  manhood,  h.  Later 
life  :  preparation,  occupation,     c.  Characteristics. 

How  TO  GET  THE  Sense  OF  THE  SENTENCE,  a.  Ask  qucstions  about 
the  sentence,  h.  Let  the  pupils  translate  what  they  read.  c.  Let 
the  pupils  infer  the  meaning  of  words  from  the  context,  d.  Let 
the  pupils  use  the  word  correctly. 

How  TO  GET  THE  Sense  OF  THE  SUBJECT,  a.  Converse  with  the  pupils. 
h.  Let  the  pupils  mention  the  principal  object,  and  the  prominent 
facts  concerning  the  object,  c.  Compel  the  pupils,  by  means  of 
questions,  to  thinks  to  reason^  and  to  express  the  thoughts  fully, 
understandingly,  and  logically. 

How  TO  GIVE  THE  Sense.  —  General  Principles,  a.  All  words  expres- 
sive of  ideas  new  to  the  subject  are  emphatic,  b.  Words  used  in 
contrast  to  a  preceding  term  are  emphatic,  c.  All  words  suggestive 
of  unexpressed  antithesis  are  emphatic,  d.  All  words  expressive  of 
ideas,  not  new  to  the  context,  are  unemphatic. 

Characteristics  of  Unemphatic  Parts,  a.  Any  word  or  thought 
necessarily  implied  is  unemphatic.  b.  Any  word  involved  in  the 
context  is  unemphatic.  c.  Any  word  or  thought  already  stated  is 
unemphatic.  d.  Explanatory  words  are  unemphatic.  e.  Repeated 
words  are  unemphatic.  f.  Words  are  unemphatic,  also,  through : 
1.  Anticipation;  2.  Sequence;  3.  Subordination,  g.  What  is  well 
known  or  understood  needs  no  emphasis. 

Telling  the  Sense,  a.  Let  the  pupils  reproduce  the  thoughts  read 
and  acquired,  orally  and  written,  in  their  own  language,     b.  Dis- 


242  LECTURES  ON  THE 

Inflectioxs  or  Slides,  a.  The  rising  slide  is  associated  with  what  is 
incomplete  in  sense,  doubtful,  interrogative,  supplicatory,  untrue, 
uncertain  and  negative  ideas,  h.  The  falling  slide  is  associated 
with  what  is  complete  and  independent  in  sense ;  whatever  is  posi- 
tive, exclusive,  dogmatical,  mandatory,  true,  certain,  etc.  c.  Sin- 
cere, honest,  simple  ideas,  should  be  read  with  the  simple  slides. 
d.  Jesting,  sarcasm,  ridicule,  scorn,  irony,  etc.,  should  be  read  with 
the  compound  slides. 


Every  recitation  wherein  the  pupil  reads  anything  should  be  a  reading 
lesson,  or  exercise  in  voice  culture,  to  teach  distinct  and  natural  utterance. 

Gradually  introduce  punctuation  marks,  one  at  a  time,  mastering  it 
fairly  before  taking  another. 

As  early  as  possible,  let  pupils  copy  their  lessons  in  script. 

Keep  prominently  in  view,  that  the  purposes  of  reading  are  to  acquire 
and  impart  knowledge. 

Let  there  be  intelligent  and  earnest  interest  in  what  is  read,  in  order 
to  read  it  well.     Remember  that  children  read  best  what  they  like  best. 

Appeal  to  the  pupils'  own  senses  of  the  beautiful,  the  good,  the  brave^ 
and  the  spirited. 

Teach  pupils  to  read  carefully,  not  only  what  is  written  or  printed, 
but  also  pictures,  nature, —  all  that  meets  the  eye. 

Remarks.  —  The  chief  hindrance  to  success  in  teaching  reading  arises 
from  the  insufficient  preparatory  training  of  our  teachers.  The  end  of 
reading  should  be  to  give  expression  to  thought  and  feeling ;  but  how  can 
we  give  proper  and  effective  expression  to  that  we  do  not  understand  ? 

Reading  should  be  an  exercise  in  thinking  and  expression,  a  very  effi- 
cient educating  process. 

In  extemporaneous  delivery,  our  perfect  knowledge  of  our  own  inten- 
tion dictates  the  emphasis  that  best  expresses  our  meaning ;  so,  in  read- 
ing, a  clear  perception  of  the  author's  aim  suggests  the  emphasis  that  is 
expressive  of  the  intended  meaning. 

The  selection  of  emphatic  M'ord$  is  regulated  by  principles  which  can 
be  exactly  formulated  for  teaching.  It  is  an  error  —  but  still  reproduced 
—  to  suppose  that  words  are  emphatic  in  virtue  of  their  grammatical 
rank.     Emphasis  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  grammatical  rank  of  words. 

The  reader  should  be  able  to  bring  the  expression  of  a  thought  to  a 
focus,  and  recognize,  as  applicable  to  the  art  of  teaching,  generally,  that 

"WHAT  IS  BEST   ADMINISTERED  IS  BEST." 


SCIENCE  AND  THE   ART  OF  TEACHING.  243 

SPELLING. 

Basis  of  Work  for  the  Lowest  Primary  Grades. 

(a)  If  we  misspell  a  word  our  brain  picture  of  it  is  defective. 

(b)  If  wrong,  we  compare  the  written  work  with  the  brain  work. 

(c)  The  foundation  of  spelling  should   be,  tlien,  the  reception  in  tlic 

brain  of  forms,  not  sounds. 
(c?)   In  order  to  retain  form  in  the  mind,  the  closest  attention,  and  the 

most  energetic  exercises  of  the  sense  of  sight  must  be  brought  to 

bear  upon  that  form. 
(e)   The  closest  attention  to  form  is  attained  by  attempting  to  draw  it. 
{/)  The  closest  attention  to  a  word  that  can  be  given,  is  to  draw  it,  that 

is,  to  copy  it  in  writing. 
(g)   All  primary  study  of  spelling  should  be  by  copying  words. 

PRINCIPLES. 

1.  The  forced  attempt  to  reproduce  or  express  that  which  is  vague 
and  indistinct  in  the  mind  is  detrimental. 

2.  The  child  should  be  prevented,  as  far  as  possible,  from  seeing  or 
reproducing  incorrect  forms. 

CAUTIONS. 

1.  No  reproduction  of  the  copying  at  first. 

2.  Never  have  one  word  written  incorrectly,  if  you  can  possibly  avoid  it. 

3.  Work  carefully.     "  Make  a  difficulty  and  you  will  have  it." 

4.  Teach  the  child  to  perceive.  Trained  sight  will  take  in  a  word 
form  at  one  seeing,  so  that  it  can  be  correctly  reproduced  with 
great  ease. 

5.  Teach  the  most  used  words  first. 

Reasons  why  the  Teacher  should  be  Cautious. 

1.  Incorrect  forms  and  expressions  stamp  themselves  as  readily  on 
the  mind  as  correct  forms. 

2.  Incorrect  forms  and  expressions  —  which  produce  imperfect  impres- 
sions —  turn  up  sometimes  in  life's  work  as  unwelcome  intruders. 

If  the  above  points  are  heeded  in  teaching  primary  classes,  excellent 
results  will  follow  in  spelling.  The  same  will  prove  true  of  all  forms  and 
expressions ;  as,  capitals,  punctuation,  and  syntax. 


244  LECTURES   ON  THE 

First  Year's  Work. 

METHOD. 

1.  The  first  year's  work  (lowest  primary)  should  be  spent  in  copying 
words,  with  little  or  no  reproduction  without  copy. 

2.  Every  word  and  every  sentence  taught  should  be  copied  from  the 
blackboard  on  the  slate,  and  then  read  from  the  slate. 

3.  Let  the  first  copyings,  no  matter  how  crude  and  awkward,  be  com- 
mended, and  the  writer  encouraged.  (They  are  types  of  the  child's 
crude  percepts.) 

4.  Request  the  child  to  persevere,  —  the  better  the  picture  of  the  word 
the  child  makes,  the  more  distinct  will  the  impression  be  on  the 
mind. 

5.  All  study  of  spelling  should  be  by  copying  words  and  sentences  in 
the  hest  possible  handwriting. 

6.  The  copied  words  should  be  marked  and  corrected  just  as  carefully 
as  any  other  lesson. 

7.  The  first  year  the  child  should  be  taught  to  express  thought  orally. 

Second  Year's  Work. 
METHOD. 

1.  At  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  mental  pictures  will  be  stored 
in  the  mind,  and  pupils  may  be  required  to  reproduce  them.  (It  is 
safe  to  begin  reproduction  now:  the  children  have  been  taught 
writing  technically,  and  are  able  to  write  a  plain  hand.) 

2.  Begin  carefully.  After  a  word  has  been  copied  from  the  board, 
erase  it,  and  have  it  reproduced  without  copy. 

3.  Do  the  same  with  tw^o  words,  then  three,  and  so  on,  until  the  pupil 
can  reproduce  the  copy  correctly. 

4.  Write  a  sentence,  erase  a  part  of  it,  and  then  cause  the  whole  to  be 
WTitten  correctly. 

5.  Teach  those  words  only  which  your  pupils  use  in  language.  (This 
holds  good  throughout  the  whole  course.  By  language  we  mean 
words  used  in  any  and  all  recitations.) 

6.  No  word  should  be  taught  until  it  is  a  sign  of  a  distinct  idea  in 
the  mind. 

7.  The  second  year  the  child  should  talk  with  the  pencil.  (This  only 
involves  the  reproduction,  continually,  of  words  which  he  knows.) 

8.  When  a  word  is  misspelled,  the  teacher  should  at  once  erase  it,  and 
substitute  the  correct  form. 

9.  Keep  a  list  of  misspelled  words,  and  teach  no  other  words  until 
they  are  learned. 

Note.  —  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  care- 
ful and  correct  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.  245 

Third  Year's  Work. 
METHOD. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  year,  if  the  first  and  second  year's  work  have 
been  faithfully  performed,  the  children  will  write  correctly  most 
new  words  after  reading  them  once. 

1.  Require  the  children  to  read  a  sentence  and  reproduce  it. 

2.  Introduce  oral  spelling. 

3.  The  teacher  should  dictate  familiar  sentences  to  the  pupils  to  copy 
on  slates  and  the  board. 

4.  The  pupils  should  be  required  to  use  original  sentences  involving 
the  use  of  the  word. 

5.  Every  word  misspelled  should  be  corrected  in  the  Exercise  Book 
by  the  pupil. 

6.  Pupils  should  be  required  to  use  words  in  various  ways  before 
copying  in  the  Exercise  Book. 

7.  Give  attention  to  the  spelling  of  words  separately  and  in  sentences. 
(The  best  test  of  spelling  is  writing  from  dictation.)  The  writing 
of  words  and  sentences  helps  reading  essentially,  and  if  it  were 
done  for  no  other  purpose,  the  time  would  be  well  spent,  —  time 
which  would  otherwise  be  given  to  listlessness  or  tiresome  idleness. 

Fourth  Year's  Work. 
HOW  TO  PREPARE  THE  SPELLING  EXERCISE. 

1.  In  the  Book  for  Primary  Departments,  the  pupils  should  be  required 
to  copy  the  words,  and  sentences  that  follow  them,  on  the  slates 
many  times  before  the  recitation,  giving  attention  to  the  proper 
spelling,  correct  use  of  capital  letters,  and  punctuation-marks.  (T. 
write  words  on  the  board.) 

2.  For  the  dictation  exercise  the  teacher  should  write  the  words  on  the 
board  beforehand,  and  require  the  pupils  to  study  them,  and  write 
sentences  containing  them ;  the  words  should  be  erased  from  the 
board,  and  the  teacher  should  then  dictate  a  sentence  containing 
one  of  the  words.     Pupils  wi'ite  the  sentence  in  this  book. 

3.  For  the  original  exercise,  the  teacher  should  write  the  words  on  the 
board  before  the  recitation,  and  require  the  pupils  to  write  many 
sentences  illustrating  the  use  of  the  words  ;  the  words  should  then 
be  erased,  and  the  teacher  should  pronounce  one  of  the  words  at  a 
time,  and  require  the  pupil  to  write  an  original  sentence  containing 
the  word. 

4.  The  teacher  should  develop  the  exercises  in  drawing  which  the 
pupils  are  to  draw  upon  their  slates ;  and,  after  the  corrections  are 
made,  copy  in  the  book. 


246  LECTURES  ON  THE 

5.  Keep  constantly  in  mind  the  three  steps  through  which  the  pupils 
must  pass  —  the  copying  step,  the  memory  step,  and  the  mastery 
step  —  in  spelling. 

6.  Let  eveiy  exercise  bear  upon  the  correct  use  of  language. 

7.  grve  undivided  attention  to  the  thought  and  its  proper 
expression. 

Directions  for  the  Spelling  Exercise. 

1.  Use  pen  and  ink  if  the  pupils  are  provided  with  desks. 

2.  Require  the  pupils  to  write  the  words  neatly  as  soon  as  pronounced. 

3.  Construct  each  letter  according  to  the  models  given. 

4.  Pupils  check  missj)elled  words. 

5.  Permit  no  erasures,  insertions,  or  writing  over  of  letters  or  words. 

6.  Pupils  write  the  corrected  words  at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

7.  When  a  pupil  fails  to  write  a  word,  a  blank  should  be  left. 

8.  All  blanks,  letters,  or  words  erased,  inserted,  written  over,  or  wrifc- 
ten  illegibly,  should  be  counted  as  errors. 

9.  Pronounce  the  words  only  once. 

10.  Ascertain  if  all  the  members  of  the  class  have  faithfully  attended 
to  the  checking  and  the  rewriting  of  the  incorrect  words. 

11.  Have  occasional  exercises  —  say  twice  a  week  —  in  dictation.  Dic- 
tate sentences  once  only.  Mark  wrong,  if  there  is  a  single  mistake  in 
punctuation,  capitals,  or  words.     Use  blank  speller,  or  slips  of  paper. 

Remarks.  —  The  incorrect  words  can  be  corrected  by  the  pupils  as  a 
part  of  the  same  exercise,  or  reserved  for  further  study  and  drill,  and  re- 
written as  a  special  exercise.  The  spelling  blanks  should  be  kept  in 
the  possession  of  the  teacher. 


LOCAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Preparatory. 
SUGGESTIONS. 

(a)    In  teaching  beginners,  general  observation  is  not  sufficient. 
(6)    Knowledge  must  descend  to  minute  detail. 

(c)  Lead  the  pupil  to  observe  the  natural  scenery  about  him,  and 
acquaint  him  with  it. 

(d)  Begin  to  obsei-ve  these  at  the  point  where  he  is  most  familiar. 

(e)  So  teach  that  the  terms  will  cease  to  be  mere  words,  and  offer  him 
realities. 

(/)   Put  the  child  in  possession  of  the  terms  by  which  these  are  de- 
noted. 


SCIENCE   AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 


247 


River 


1.  Banks 


2.  Water 


3.  Channel 


4.  Course 


Steep 

Sloping 

Flat 

Dark 
Clear 

Level 
Sloping 
Pebbly 
Rocky 


^  Earthy. 
>  Rocky. 
)  Grassy, 
i  Deep. 
1  Shallow, 
j  Flowing. 
J  Eddying. 

I  Broad. 
I  Narrow. 


j  1.  On  the  slope  of  the  country. 
I  2.  On  mountain  spurs. 


.5.  Bed 


Head 

Source 
Rise 

Length    - 

Mouth. 
Cataract. 


II 


Sandy. 
Pebbly. 
Rocky. 

Continuous. 
Intermittent. 


Smooth 
Rough 

Springs 

Lakes 

Glaciers 

1.  Configuration. 

2.  Area. 

3.  Character  of  the  soil. 
Deposits,  deltas,  basin. 

Precipice. 

So  teach  geography  that  it  may  be  understood  by  the  children,  so  that 
it  may  interest  them  and  remain  with  them,  and  form  the  subject  of  future 
thought. 

HOW  TO  TEACH  LOCAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Talk  with  the  children  rather  than  to  them. 

2.  Present  the  idea  by  illustration  rather  than  by  description*. 

3.  Show  the  objects  in  nature,  or  have  models  of  them,  or  pictures  of 
them. 

Remarks.  —  Knowledge  is  not  power  to  the  child,  if  it  be  abstract. 
Every  class  of  facts,  and  every  principle  involved,  should  have  illustration 
from  the  wide  range  of  nature.  Every  sense  and  power  of  the  child  can 
be  grasped  and  applied  in  the  teaching  of  geography. 


I.  Elevations  of  Land 


II.  Parts  of  Hills  and 
Mountains  .    .    .    . 


GEOGRAPHY. 

Study  of  Hills  and  Mountains. 
f  (a)  Hills, — high  or  low. 

(.)  Mountai„s||^^^;Xtg,-}  o"'fl 
(a)  Base. 
(h)  Foot. 

(c)  Summit. 

(d)  Side,  slope,  or  slant. 


248 


LECTURES  ON  THE 


III. 


Construction  of 
Hills  and  Moun- 
tains     


(a)  Single 

(b)  Group 

(c)  Chain 

(d)  liange 

(e)  Peak 
I  (/)  Systems  J 


A  hill  or  mountain 
may  be  bare  oy< 
covered  with 


"  Grass. 
Heath. 
Shrubs. 
Trees. 
Snow. 


IV. 


Forms  of  Land  Sur- 
face     


(a)  Level  or  flat,  — plain. 

(b)  Uneven  or  undulating,  caused  by  the 
elevations  and  depressions,  forming 
valleys. 

(c)  Plateau. 
(</)  Mountainous. 

(a)  Mountains  intercept  moist  currents ;  the 
cold  summits  condense  the  moisture ; 
the  moisture  is  precipitated  in  the 
form  of  rain,  hail,  and  snow. 

(b)  Mountains  supply  springs  and  rivers 
with  water. 

(c)  Mountains  contain  abundant  mineral 
treasures. 

(d)  Mountains  add  to  the  healthfulness  of 
a  country. 

(e)  Mountains  add  to  the  beauty  of  the 
landscape. 

(/)  Mountains  render  the  earth  habitable. 
^  (</)  Mountains  are  promoters  of  civilization. 

Direction.  —  After  the  pupils  get  the  correct  ideas,  then  they  should 
repeat  together  the  names  of  the  several  parts,  and  subsequently  describe 
each  part  individually.  During  the  second  and  third  years  the  teaching 
should  be  confined  to  the  description  of  the  terms  used;  in  the  thu'd 
year  the  definitions  should  be  developed  by  the  pupils,  —  aided  when 
necessary  by  the  teacher,  —  and  committed  to  memory. 


V.  Benefits    derived 
FROM  Mountains  . 


Definitions  of  the  Terms  Developed. 

1.  A  natural  elevation  of  land  rising  above  the  surrounding  country  is 
called  a  Jiill.  (The  term  hill  is  applied  to  ridges  less  than  2000  feet 
in  elevation.  Over  twenty  and  less  than  500  feet,  low ;  over  500  feet, 
high.) 

2.  A  natural  elevation  of  land,  rising  above  the  level  of  the  earth  and 
the  hills,  is  called  a  mountain.  (Over  2000  feet  and  less  than  5000 
feet,  low ;  over  5000  feet,  high.  Earthy  mountains  means  composed 
of  earth ;  craggy,  of  rocks.) 

3.  The  bottom  of  a  hill,  or  a  mountain  on  which  it  stands  or  rests,  is 
called  the  base. 

4.  The  lowest  part  of  a  hill  or  a  mountain  is  called  the /ooL 

5.  The  highest  part  of  a  hill  or  a  mountain  is  called  the  summit. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.  249 

6.  The  surface  between  the  base  of  a  hill,  or  of  a  mountain,  and  the  top, 
is  called  the  side,  slope,  or  slant. 

7.  A  single  elevation  standing  alone  is  called  a  hill  ov  a  mountain. 

8.  A  number  of  hills  or  mountains  standing  together  is  called  a  group. 

9.  A  series  of  hills  or  mountains  connected,  or  following  each  other  in 
succession,  is  called  a  chain. 

10.  A  line  of  hills  or  mountains  is  called  a  range. 

11.  The  top  of  a  hill  or  mountain  ending  in  a  point  is  called  a  peak. 

12.  An  entire  collection  of  mountains,  including  groups,  chains,  ranges, 
and  peaks,  is  called  a  system.  (Valleys  also  may  be  included  in  a 
mountain  system.) 

13.  Land  quite  flat  or  level  is  called  a  plain. 

14.  Rolling  land,  rising  or  falling  like  waves,  is  called  undulating. 

15.  Land  enclosed  between  hills  and  mountains  is  called  a  valley. 

16.  A  broad  area  of  land  in  a  somewhat  elevated  position,  skirted  by 
mountain  ranges,  is  called  a  plateau. 

17.  A  portion  of  country  full  of  mountains  is  called  mountainous. 

How  TO  Teach  the  Children  about  a  Hill  and  a  Mountain. 

1.  In  developing  the  ideas,  use  the  natural  objects,  or  models. 

2.  Begin  the  study  of  topographical  geography  with  the  accurate  observa- 
tion of  the  locality  in  which  the  instruction  is  given,  thus  carrying 
out  the  Pestalozzian  principles  of  proceeding  from  the  knoivn  to  the 
unknown.  Consider  the  eminently  educative  character  of  this  course, 
and  the  natural  process  of  the  development  of  the  child  which  is  im- 
plied in  it. 

3.  Lead  the  child  in  such  a  way  as  to  teach  him  to  observe  with  precision 
and  accuracy.  A  necessary  condition  to  aU  valuable  results  is  atten- 
tion ;  attention  is  easily  secured,  because  the  instruction  is  directed 
to  matters  which  he  can  understand  and  which  interest  him;  his 
memory  will  be  healthfully  exercised,  because  the  instruction  con- 
cerns things  rather  than  words. 

4.  Do  not  teach  the  usual  verbal  geographical  definitions  until  the  chil- 
dren have  acquired  a  clear  perception  of  the  terms  they  describe. 

5.  Teach  the  child  to  observe.  Much  attention  should  be  paid  to 
accuracy  of  language  in  describing  the  different  appearance  of  land 
and  water.  The  terms  used  should  be  thoroughly  explained,  and 
repeated  until  they  become  impressed  upon  the  memory. 

Questions  asked  the  pupils  in  giving  the  lessons  objectively :  — 

Elevations  of  Land,  Parts  of  Hills  and  Mountains. 
1.    If  you  were  to  walk  across  the  school-room  or  play-ground,  could  you 
do  it  easily  ? 


260  LECTURES  ON  THE 

2.  Have  yon  ever  found  it  more  difficult  to  walk  in  other  places?  Why? 

3.  On  what  part  of  a  road  can  a  horse  draw  a  cart  the  more  easily? 

4.  What  kind  of  land  is  that  on  which  it  is  easy  to  move  along? 

5.  What  kmd  of  land  is  that  on  which  it  is  more  difficult  to  move  ? 

6.  What  difference  may  we  say  there  is  in  the  land  ?     By  the  teacher. 
Sometimes  a  large  extent  of  land  is  flat.    We  call  such  land  a  jAain. 

7.  If  I  talk  to  you  about  a  plain,  what  would  you  understand  the  vv^ord 
to  mean  ?  Answer  by  pupils :  "  A  large  piece  of  land  that  is  quite 
flat  and  even  is  called  a,  plain." 

8.  What  name  do  you  give  those  places  at  which  land  rises  up  ?  Answer. 
Hills. 

9.  When  do  you  call  the  land  a  hill  ? 

10.  When  the  land  rises  higher  than  a  hill,  what  do  we  call  it? 

11.  What  part  of  a  hill  or  mountain  do  we  flrst  come  to  as  we  walk 
towards  it? 

12.  When  you  go  up  a  hill  or  mountain,  where  do  you  begin  to  ascend  ? 
Answer.    At  the  base.     You  may  call  that  part  of  the  base  at  which 
you  begin  to  ascend  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

13.  Point  out  to  me  some  other  part  of  a  mountain.  Sides.  What  is  that 
part  called  that  we  walk  over  between  the  base  of  the  hill  and  the 
top  ?     Sides. 

14.  Point  out  to  me  some  other  part  of  a  mountain.  Top.  Teacher. 
This  is  called  the  summit.  What  part  of  a  mountain  would  you  call 
its  summit  ? 

Note.  —  The  teacher  may  now  propose  that  the  children  should  help 
to  describe  a  walk  up  a  mountain,  naming  the  different  parts  over. 

Forms  of  Land  Surfaces. 

1.  What  do  we  call  elevated  portions  of  land? 

2.  AVhat  do  you  call  a  mountain  standing  alone  ? 
Note.  —  Momitains  seldom  stand  alone. 

Teacher  builds  up  with  loam  a  number  of  hills.     Children  examine 
and  make  models  out  of  clay,  or  illustrate  on  the  board. 

3.  What  do  you  notice  of  the  mountains  ? 

4.  What  is  a  number  of  mountains  standing  together  called?     Group. 
Teacher  builds  up  a  set  of  mountains  of  which  one  joins  another. 

Asks  the  pupil  what  they  are  called. 

5.  What  do  you  call  mountains  joined  together?     Chain. 

6.  Wherein  does  a  chain  differ  from  a  group  of  mountains? 

Teacher  builds  up  Imes  of  hills  and  mountains.     Asks  the  pupils  to 
observe  accurately  and  describe  them. 

7.  What  is  a  line  of  hills  or  mountains  called  ?     Range. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.  251 

8.  Wherein  does  a  range  differ  from  a  chain? 

9.  What  is  the  top  of  a  mountain  ending  in  a  point  called  ? 
Teacher  builds  up  single   mountains,  groups,  chains,  ranges,  and 

asks  pupils  to  observe  and  describe. 

10.  What  is  such  an  entire  collection  called  ? 

11.  In  which  of  these  places,  a  plain,  mountain,  or  valley,  would  it  be 

most  pleasant  to  live  in  ?    Valley.     AVhy  ? 

Note.  —  A  plain  is  cold  in  winter  and  hot  in  summer,  because  it  is 
open  to  the  cold  winds  and  hot  sun.  It  has  no  mountains  or  trees  to 
afford  shelter. 

12.  What  is  meant  by  undulating  surface  ? 

13.  Wherein  does  a  plain  differ  from  a  plateau  ? 

14.  With  what  are  plateaus  generally  skirted. 

Benefits  Derived  from  Mountains. 

1.  Why  is  the  moisture  precipitated? 

2.  How  is  it  precipitated  ? 

3.  How  do  mountains  supply  springs  and  rivers  with  water  ? 

4.  Why  do  mountains  add  to  the  healthfuliiess  of  a  country? 

5.  Why  do  mountains  render  the  earth  habitable  ? 

6.  Why  are  mountains  promoters  of  civilization  ? 


STUDY    OF    CONTINENTS. 

The  study  of  geography  should  not  be  limited  to  a  single  description 
of  the  earth  and  of  the  beings  on  it ;  it  should  describe,  it  should  inter- 
pret, it  should  compare,  it  should  rise  to  the  how  and  the  icherefore  of  the 
phenomena  which  it  describes.  Physical  geography,  therefore,  ought  to 
be,  not  only  the  description  of  the  earth,  but  the  physical  science  of  the 
globe,  or  the  science  of  the  general  phenomena  of  the  present  life  of  the 
globe,  in  reference  to  their  connection  and  mutual  dependence.  —  Guyot. 

(a)  That  the  southern  points  of  all  the  conti- 
nents are  high  and  rocky.  (Seem  to  be  the 
extremities  of  mountain  belts.)  —  Foster. 

(6)  That  the  continents  have,  east  of  their 
southern  points,  a  large  island,  or  a  group 
of  islands.  —  Foster. 

(c)  That  there  is  a  deep  bend  of  their  western 
side  toward  the  interior  of  the  continent. 
—  Foster. 

(d)  That  the  lands  expand  and  come  together 
towards  the  north,  while  they  separate  and 
narrow  down  to  points  in  the  south. — 
Steffens. 


Analogies  or  Remark- 
able    Coincidences 
IN  THE  Structure  of^ 
THE   Forms   of   the 
Continents 


252 


LECTURES  ON  THE 


Analogies, 
ETC.       .      . 


Contour  of 
the  conti-^ 

NENTS    .    . 


"  (e)  That  there  is  a  singular  parallelism  existing  between 
the  two  sides  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  —  the  salient  an- 
gles of  the  one  corresponding  to  the  re-entering  an- 
gles of  the  other. —  Humholdt. 

(/)  That  the  great  terrestrial  masses  are  grouped  two  by 
two,  in  three  double  worlds,  united  by  an  isthmus,  — 
on  one  side  of  the  isthmus  is  an  archipelago,  on  the 
opposite  side  a  peninsula.  —  Steffens. 

(g)  That  the  lands  are  more  numerous  in  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  that  the  water  covers  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  —  One  is  called 
the  Continental  or  Land  hemisphere,  the  other  the 
Oceanic  or  Water  hemisphere.  —  Carl  Hitter. 

Qi)  That  the  lands  are  combined  in  two  great  masses, 
giving  them  a  marked  character  of  originality.  In 
the  Old  World  the  mass  extends  from  east  to  west ; 
in  the  New  World  from  north  to  south.  —  Bitter. 

(a)  Some  continents  are  deeply  indent^,  giving  great 
length  to  coast  lines ;  other  coasts  are  simple  and 
without  numerous  indentations. 

(&)  Africa  has  no  important  peninsulas,  nor  anywhere 
lets  into  the  continent  the  waters  of  the  sea. 

(c)  Asia  has  many  large  peninsulas,  and  it  is  washed  on 
three  sides  by  the  ocean. 

(d)  Europe ;  contour  is  varied,  being  deeply  indented  in 
all  parts  by  the  ocean,  and  by  inland  seas. 

(e)  North  America  has  prominent  indentations  on  the 
northern,  eastern,  and  southern  coasts,  but  few  on 
the  western. 

(/)  South  America  has  a  few  indentations  on  the  western 
coast, —  no  prominent  ones. 
Note.  —  Africa  is  closed  to  the  ocean ;  Asia  opens  only 
its  margins ;  Europe  is  the  most  accessible  of  all  the  con- 
tinents ;  North  America  stands  next  to  Europe,  and  South 
^  America  corresponds  to  Africa. 


General  Suggestions  to  be  Observed  in  Teaching  the  Struc- 
tures OF  THE  Continents. 

(a)  Either  hang  an  outline  map  of  the  world  before  the  class,  or  draw 

the  different  continents  on  the  board. 

(b)  Ask  the  pupils  to  observe  the  resemblances  of  the  continents,  and 

then  the  differences. 

(c)  See  that  the  pupils  thoroughly  understand  what  is  meant  by  the 

contour  and  the  relief  oi  a  continent:  the  contour  of  a  continent  or 
an  island  is  the  delineation  of  the  line  of  contact  between  the  lands 
and  the  horizontal  surface  of  the  ocean ;  the  relief  of  a  continent 
or  an  island  is  its  elevation  as  a  whole,  varied  by  plains,  table- 
lands, mountains,  and  valleys.     A  knowledge  of  the  ronfnur  .Tssists 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  AliT  OF  TEACHING. 


253 


the  pupil  to  determine  the  projections  and  the  indentations  of  a 
continent;  a  knowledge  of  the  relief  oi  a  continent  is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  —  controlling  its  drainage,  shaping  its  river  basins, 
du-ecting  the  course  of  the  rivers,  and  influencing,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, the  direction  and  the  character  of  the  winds, 
(c?)  See  that  the  pupils  understand  why  modern  geographers  assert  that 
there  are  six  continents.  The  reasons  given  by  Humboldt  and 
Ritter  are  as  follows :  There  are  certain  grand  features  common  to 
six  of  the  land  divisions,  —  a  peculiar  combination  of  mountain 
systems,  plateaus,  and  plains.  In  each  of  the  six  divisions  of  land 
there  is,  upon  one  side  of  the  centre,  a  great  mass  of  elevated  lands, 
constituting  the  primary  feature,  called  the  primary  axis  of  its 
structure ;  on  the  opposite  side  is  found  a  similar,  though  smaller 
and  less  elevated  mass,  constituting  the  secondary  feature,  called 
the  secondary  axis.  Between  the  primary  and  the  secondary  eleva- 
tions is  a  central  depression,  common  to  the  six  continents. 


MATHEMATICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Earth. 
I.,  IT.,  III.,  lY.,  and  V.  taught  from  maps,  in  connection  with  map- 


drawing. 

I.  Position 

II.  Shape.    . 
III.  Size    .     . 


IV.  Physical 
Relief   . 


V.  Inland 
AVaters  . 


'>    Pelat' '    -J  ^'  -^^^^  respect  to  other  bodies  of  land. 


1.  Latitude  and  Longitude. 
With  resp 
With  respect  to  other  bodies  of  water 

1.  Indentations 

2.  Projections 


1.  General  form. 

2.  Coast  outline 


1.  Northern  Coast. 

2.  Eastern  Coast. 

3.  Southern  Coast. 
_  4.  Western  Coast. 

1.  Relative,  as  compared  with  other  bodies  of  land. 

2.  Length  and  width. 

3.  ui.rea. 

1     ZT-  7  /^    7„       V  1-  Plateaus 
1.  Highlands       |  ^    Mountains 


2.  Lowlands 

1.  Lakes 

2.  Rivers 


*lains. 
'alleys. 


(  1.  PL 

I  2.  Yt 
<  1.  Salt      >  ,    TT 
12.  Fresh  1 1-  ^^^^ 

1.  Systems 

2.  Main  streams 

3.  Tributaries 

4.  Useful  for 


1.  Systems. 

2.  Ranges. 

3.  Peaks. 


(  1.  Asyieldingfish. 
12.  Form 


lavigation. 

r  Length,  size,  and 
-<  description  of  par- 
( ticular  rivers. 

'igation. 
-power. 
Yielding  fish. 


(1.  Navigj 
^2.  Water- 
(3.  Yieldii 


254 


LECTURES  ON  THE 


VI.  Climate 


VII. 


Vegeta- 
tion . 


Vni.  Animals 


1.  Temperature. 

2.  Moisture    (  1. 
8.  Salubrity  \  2. 


Healthf  ulness,  or 
Unhealthfulness 


{i; 


"1.  Latitude. 

2.  Elevation. 

3.  Presence  and  di- 
rection of  moun- 
tain ranges. 

4.  Nearness  to  the 
ocean. 

5.  Land  and  sea 
winds. 

1.  Of  the  ToiTid  Zone         "] 

2.  Of  the  Temperate  Zone   \  Wild  and  cultivated. 

3.  Of  the  Frigid  Zone  J 

1.  Of  the  Torrid  Zone 
Of  the  Temperate  Zone 
Of  the  Frigid  Zone 


Wild  and  domestic. 


HISTORICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


I.  Races  of  Peo- 
ple     .     .     .    . 


L  Primary 


2.  Secondary 


II.  Social  and   Intellectual 
Condition 


III.  Civil  and  So- 
cial Organiza- 
tions .... 


'  1.   Governments 


^  2.  Religions 


1.  White,— European" 

2.  Yellow,  —  Asiatic 

3.  Black,  —  African 
\.  Indian 

2.  Malayan 

3.  Australian 

1.  Savage. 

2.  Nomadic. 

3.  Civilized. 

1.  Republican. 


Regions 

y  inhabited 

by  each. 


2.  Monarchical  [l:Ab3^'^f 

1.  Christian. 

2.  Jewish. 

3.  Mohammedan. 

4.  Other. 


IV.  Industries 


L  Leading 


1.  Agriculture,  includ- 

ing grazing 

2.  Mining 


Occupa-  <  3.  Manufacturing,    in- 


tions  . 


V.  Internal  Improvements 


Natural  re- 
gions adap- 
ted to  the 
pursuit  of 
each. 


eluding  lumbering 

4.  Commerce      \  \  ^."^'^'-'l: 
(  2.  Domestic. 

9    fi.-f-  .  J  1-  Manufacturing  (  Location  and  nat- 
i  les  ■{  2_  Commercial        (  ural  advantages. 


1^: 


Local  railroads. 
Trunk  lines. 


L  Railroads 

2.  Canals. 

3.  Navigation,  on  lakes  and  rivers. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.  255 


ARITHMETIC. 

The  study  of  arithmetic  should  secure  the  following  results :  — 
First.        Mental  Discipline. 
Second.     Accuracy  and  Expertness. 
Third.      Preparation  for  Business. 

PRINCIPLES. 

1.  The  pupil  must  acquire  accurate  and  clear  perceptions. 

(a)  The  teacher  must  have  accurate  perceptions  and  conceptions 
of  the  truth. 

(b)  Nothing  should  be  presented  beyond  the  comprehension  of 
the  pupil. 

(c)  The  teacher  should  present  all  operations  and  principles  objec- 
tively. 

(rf)  More  attention  should  be  given  to  the  study  of  processes  than 
to  analysis, —  computation  comes  frst,  then  calculation.  After 
pupils  become  expert  in  computation,  greater  attention  should 
be  given  to  calculation,  —  the  thinking. 

2.  The   teacher  must   have  a   definite  plan  of   doing   the 
work. 

(a)  Vague,  indefinite,  and  incorrect  perceptions  of  the  real,  the 
true,  produce  mental  disorder  and  weakness. 

(6)    Begin  with  the  simple,  and  couple  it  with  the  difficult. 

(c)  Insist  upon  the  correct  reading  and  understanding  of  the 
problem. 

3.  See  that  the  pupil's  attention  is  concentrated,  —  mind  is 
developed  and  strengthened  in  proportion  to  the  effort 

PUT    forth. 

(a)   The  teacher  must   avoid  doing  the  pupil's  work,  —  mental 

growth  is  attained  through  self-e^ort. 
(&)    Arouse  every  power  of  the  mind  to  its  fullest  activity. 

GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

1.  See  that  facts  are  j)i"esented  to  the  mind  through  the  same  sense. 

2.  Associate  the  sum  with  the  characters,  rather  than  with  the  name 
of  the  characters. 

3.  The  assistance  rendered  by  the  teacher  should  be  indirect,  —  let  it 
be  done  through  questioning. 

4.  See  that  the  process  (the  operation)  is  not  confounded  with  the 
reasoning  for  performing  the  operation. 


256 


LECTURES  ON  THE 


5.  The  processes  of  arithmetic  are  both  analytic  and  synthetic,  hence 
analysis  precedes  synthesis. 

6.  Accustom  the  pupil  to  state  each  point  clearly,  and  in  logical  order. 

7.  In  the  grammar  departments  require  pupils  to  write  out  the  analy- 
sis of  two  or  three  problems  daily. 

8.  After  each  fact  has  been  fully  developed,  review,  review,  review  (par- 
ticularly in  the  primary  classes). 

9.  See  that  the  pupils  acquire  a  correct  and  practical  knowledge  of 
business  language  and  business  practice.  Hold  the  pupil  personally 
responsible  for  correct  work. 

Note.  —  See  that  the  tables  of  decades  and  of  decimations  are  taught 
thoroughly  in  every  grade.  Take  five  or  seven  minutes  each  day  in  gene- 
ral drill.  Make  the  pupils  accurate  and  expert  in  mathematical  computa- 
tion and  calculation. 


TABLE  OF 

DECADES 

AND  OF  DECIMATIONS. 

I. 

Ist. 
Dec'n. 

Decade.  0, 

2d. 
Dec'n. 

1, 

3d. 
Dec'n. 

9 

**> 

4th. 
Dec'n, 

3, 

5th.          6th. 
Dec'n.      Dec'n. 

4,        5, 

7th. 
Dec'n. 

6, 

8th. 
Dec'n. 

7, 

9th. 
Dec'n. 

8, 

lOth. 
Dec'n. 

9, 

II. 

"      10, 

11, 

12, 

13, 

14,       15, 

16, 

17, 

18, 

19, 

III. 

«      20, 

21, 

22, 

23, 

24,      25, 

26, 

27, 

28, 

29, 

IV. 

"      30, 

31, 

32, 

33, 

34,      35, 

36, 

37, 

38, 

39, 

V. 

"      40, 

41, 

42, 

43, 

44,      45, 

46, 

47, 

48, 

49, 

VI. 

"      50, 

51, 

52, 

53, 

54,       55, 

56, 

57, 

58, 

59, 

VII. 

"      60, 

61, 

62, 

63, 

64,       65, 

66, 

67, 

68, 

69, 

nil. 

"      70, 

71, 

72, 

73, 

74,      75, 

76, 

77, 

78, 

79, 

IX. 

"      80, 

81, 

82, 

83, 

84,       85, 

86, 

87, 

88, 

89, 

X. 

"      90, 

91, 

92, 

93, 

94,       95, 

96, 

97, 

98, 

99, 

XI. 

"    100, 

101, 

102, 

103, 

104,     105, 

106, 

107, 

108, 

109. 

LANGUAGE    LESSONS. 


The  primary  object  of  education  in  language  is  to  learn  to  use  lan- 
guage. The  use  of  lanugage  is  an  art;  and  we  learn  the  art  by  imitation 
and  practice.  The  pupil  who  has  alw^ays  heard  good  language  will  use 
good  language ;  his  ability  to  use  good  language  does  not  depend  upon 
his  knowledge  of  grammar,  but  upon  his  having  heard  good  English,  and 
read  it. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  language  lessons  is,  that  pupils  are  to 
be  taught  the  practical  use  of  language  by  the  use  of  language,  rather 
than  by  a  study  of  its  principles.  They  must  learn  the  art,  and,  through 
the  art,  come  up  to  the  science. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.  257 

[We  do  not  wisli  to  condemn  the  study  of  grammar,  —  the  teacher 
should  understand  it.  Technical  grammar  is  the  study  of  the  science  of 
language,  and  it  belongs  in  the  advanced  course.] 

The  object  of  language  lessons  is  to  teach  the  art  of  correct  expression ; 
of  grammar,  to  teach  the  science  of  language. 

The  language  lessons  should  prepare  for,  and  lead  up  to  grammar. 
According  to  this  principle,  a  knowledge  of  language  should  precede  a 
knowledge  of  grammar. 


Suitable  for  Beginners. 
DIRECTIONS. 

1.  1.   Require  pupils  to  write  the  names  of  objects. 

2.  Require  pupils  to  write  the  names  of  parts  of  objects. 

3.  Require  pupils  to  write  the  names  of  qualities  of  objects. 

4.  Require  pupils  to  name  the  uses  of  objects. 

II.  1.  Require  pupils  to  give  a  name  that  will  apply  to  everything 
which  they  can  perceive  (matter) . 

2.  Require  pupils  to  classify  the  different  kinds  of  matter  (mineral, 
vegetable,  animal). 

3.  Require  pupils  to  name  things  that  belong  to  the  different  classes. 

III.  1.  Require  pupils  to  write  the  names  of  objects  with  the  name 
of  action,  forming  a  sentence. 

2.  Lead  pupils  to  an  idea  of  a  sentence,  as  asserting  something  of 
something. 

3.  Develop  telling  or  declarative  sentence,  asking  or  interrogative 
sentence,  commanding  or  imperative  sentence,  and  feeling  or  exclaiming 
sentence. 

4.  Teach  them  that  each  sentence  begins  with  a  capital  letter ;  that  a 
declaration  or  imperative  sentence  ends  with  a  period ;  an  interrogative 
sentence  with  an  interrogation  point ;  and  an  exclaiming  sentence  with 
an  exclamation  point.  (Drill  them  in  writing  sentences,  and  correcting 
sentences  which  violate  these  rules.) 

5.  Have  them  write  sentences  introducing  adjectives,  adverbs,  pro- 
nouns, etc.  (The  teacher  will  give  the  words  and  have  them  form  sen- 
tences. Of  course  the  pupils  are  not  to  know  anything  about  these 
words  as  parts  of  speech.) 

6.  Show  the  difference  between  particular  and  common  names,  and 
teach  the  use  of  capitals  for  particular  names.  Teach  also  the  use  of 
capitals  I  and  O.  (Have  them  write  exercises  involving  these  things, 
and  correct  sentences  which  violate  their  correct  use.) 


258  LECTURES  ON   THE 

IV.  1.  Give  two  wojds,  and  have  pupils  write  sentences  containing 
them ;  give  three  words  to  put  in  a  sentence ;  four  words,  etc.  (Let  the 
pupils  select  words  which  they  are  to  write  in  a  sentence.) 

2.  Give  pupils  sentences,  with  words  omitted,  and  require  them  to 
insert  the  correct  words.  (The  teacher  should  select  and  prepare  a  large 
list  of  such  sentences,  write  them  on  the  board,  or  take  a  copy  from  the 
copygram.) 

V.  1.  Present  an  object  to  the  pupils ;  let  them  examine  it  and  de- 
scribe it.     (Let  them  describe  one  another.) 

2.  Present  objects  to  the  pupils ;  let  them  compare  and  tell  the  re- 
semblances and  differences. 

3.  Let  the  pupils  look  at  a  picture  and  tell  what  they  see  in  it ;  repro- 
duce it  orally  and  written.  (The  teacher  should  call  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  to  the  objects,  number,  appearances,  etc.,  if  unnoticed  by  pupils.) 

4.  Tell  or  read  something ;  have  them  repeat  what  you  have  said  in 
their  own  words,  and  then  write  it  out  on  their  slates  or  on  paper. 
(They  will  see  that  writing  a  composition  is  merely  telling  in  writing 
■what  they  know  and  can  tell  in  talk.) 

5.  Call  out  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  an  object  by  asking  questions 
about  it,  and  then  have  him  write  down  what  has  been  said,  in  full  sen- 
tences. (Ask  questions  about  a  sponge,  about  dew,  rain,  water,  snow, 
winds,  habits  of  animals,  plants,  etc.) 

VI.  1.  Teach  the  use  of  the  hyphen,  as  connecting  compound  words, 
and  also  its  use  at  the  end  of  a  line,  in  connecting  one  syllable  with  the 
syllable  beginning  the  next  line. 

2.  Teach  the  use  of  the  comma,  as  placed  after  the  name  addressed, 
and  also  as  connecting  three  words  of  a  series ;  as,  "Jane,  come  here ; "  as, 
"  He  saw  a  boy,  a  girl,  and  a  man." 

3.  Teach  the  use  of  the  period  after  abbreviations,  and  drill  pupils 
on  the  common  abbreviations;  as,  Mr.,  Dr.,  Rev.,  Hon.,  Esq.,  LL.D.,  Ph.  D. 

4.  Teach  the  use  of  quotation  marks. 

5.  Teach  the  use  of  a  colon  before  a  quotation,  as  follows,  As  he  said : 
"  Mr.  Speaker,  the  gentleman  is  mistaken." 

6.  Teach  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  in  denoting  possession,  as,  Min- 
nie's book ;  also  its  use  in  denoting  omission  of  letters,  as,  ne'er,  'tis,  etc. 

VII.  1.  Give  related  simple  sentences,  and  require  pupils  to  unite 
them  into  compound  sentences.  Thus,  "Mary  is  studying,"  "Mary  is 
walking,"  changed  into  "  Mary  is  studying  and  walking." 

2.  Give  the  pupils  a  proverb,  and  have  them  write  out  an  explanation. 
"  It  is  hard  for  an  empty  bag  to  stand  upright."  "  Birds  of  a  feather 
flock  together."     "  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss." 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.  259 

3.  Require  them  to  express  sentences  in  different  ways;  as,  "The 
birds  sing  sweetly  in  the  spring  of  tlie  year,"  changed  to  "  In  the  spring 
of  the  year,  the  birds  sing  sweetly." 

4.  Change  poetry  into  prose.  (Write  a  stanza  on  the  board,  and  have 
them  express  the  same  thing  in  prose.) 

5.  Exercise  them  daily  on  misused  words  and  in  correct  construc- 
tions ;  as,  "  I  done  it ;  "  "  Me  and  her  done  it ;  "  "  I  and  John  saw  it ;  " 
"  Let  Mary  and  I  go  out ; "  "  Between  you  and  I." 

VIII.  1.  Teach  them  how  to  write  a  letter;  as,  the  heading,  address, 
salutation,  introduction,  body  of  the  letter,  close,  superscription,  punctua- 
tion, and  the  correct  use  of  capital  letters. 

2.  Require  pupils  to  write  letters  of  different  kinds,  as  business  let- 
ters, social  letters,  notes  of  invitation,  notes  of  acceptance,  notes  of  con- 
dolence, excuses  for  absence,  receipts  for  money,  due  bills,  notes,  etc. 
(It  is  a  good  plan  not  to  receive  an  excuse  from  a  pupil  unless  it  is 
written  in  his  own  hand  ;  it  will  teach  him  how  to  construct  sentences.) 

3.  Let  them  write  letters  to  the  teacher,  to  the  trustee,  to  a  friend,  to 
their  parents,  schoolmates,  etc.  (Teacher  must  give  pupils  the  correct 
form  as  a  model,  and  drill  thoroughly  upon  it.) 

4.  Have  them  write  little  newspaper  paragraphs,  as  an  account  of  a 
fire,  of  a  party,  of  a  runaw^ay,  of  a  railroad  accident,  etc. 

5.  Encourage  the  pupils  to  commit  to  memory  and  recite  choice  selec- 
tions of  prose  or  poetry.     (This  will  develop  a  literary  taste.) 

6.  See  that  the  pupils  are  interested,  and  give  suitable  subjects,  and 
require  them  to  write  short  compositions.  Encourage  the  timid.  Lead 
them  to  write  naturally.  In  the  outlines  presented,  the  teacher  should 
make  the  exercises  very  complete.  Do  not  be  afraid  of  having  too  much 
under  each  head. 

CAUTIONS. 

1.  Make  haste  slowly  in  language. 

2.  Give  variety  to  the  lessons. 

3.  Let  every  exercise  bear  upon  the  correct  use  of  language. 

4.  Do  not  place  a  text-book  in  language  in  the  hands  of  pupils  at  first. 

5.  Correct  kindly  and  gently,  and  strive  to  make  them  love  to  write. 

What  to  Avoid  in  the  Use  of  Words. 

1.  Avoid  ignorance.,  a.  Common  errors,  b.  Ungrammatical  expres- 
sions,    c.  Incorrect  articulation. 

2.  Vulgarity. 

"  Immodest  words  admit  of  no  defence, 
For  want  of  decency  is  want  of  sense." 

3.  Affectation. 


260  LECTURES   ON    THE 

How  TO  Cultivate  the  Command  of  Words. 

1.  Constant  use  of  the  dictionary.  2.  Make  words  a  special  study. 
3.  Read  only  best  authors.  4.  Seek  the  company  of  the  cultured.  5. 
Have  good  thoughts  to  express.  6.  Study  synonyms.  7.  Translating 
from  one  language  to  another. 

"  I  had  rather  speak  five  words  with  my  understanding,  that  by  my 
voice  I  might  teach  others  also,  than  ten  thousand  words  in  an  unknown 
tongue."  —  !  Cor.  14:19. 


COMPOSITION 


Definition.  —  Composition  is  the  art  of  expressing  our  ideas  and 
thoughts  in  words. 

Importance.  —  a.  It  prepares  pupils  for  success  in  life's  work.  h.  It 
affords  valuable  culture  to  the  mind.  c.  It  cultivates  exactness  in  expres- 
sion,    d.  It  becomes  a  source  of  the  most  refined  and  exquisite  pleasure. 

Errors  in  Teaching  Composition. — a.  Subjects  too  difficult  and 
abstract,  h.  Requiring  pupils  to  write  without  any  instruction  on  the 
subject,  c.  Making  it  a  monthly  exercise  instead  of  a  daily  one.  d.  Put- 
ting words  together  mechanically,  without  any  idea  of  their  meaning, 
e.  Performing  the  work  as  an  allotted  task,  without  any  interest.  /  Re- 
quiring pupils  to  express  ideas  on  a  subject  when  they  have  no  ideas  to 
express. 

Sources  of  Material.  —  1.  Observation.  1.  Reading.  3.  Discus- 
sion.    4.  Reflection. 

Observation.  —  a.  Objects  of  the  material  world,  h.  Causes,  effects, 
etc.     c.  Experience  of  others. 

Reading. —  a.  To  obtain  facts,  ideas,  sentiments,  b.  To  obtain  pro- 
ductions from  master  minds,  c.  To  cull  fine  passages,  write  them,  and 
commit  to  memory,  d.  To  take  note  of  interesting  and  important  facts. 
e.  To  familiarize  yourself  with  authors,  their  writings,  opinions,  judg- 
ments. /.  To  digest  and  assimilate,  —  make  the  thoughts  your  own. 
g.  To  gain  seed-thoughts  that  will  produce  other  thoughts  in  abundance. 
(Read  extensively,  read  and  re-read,  write  and  re-write,^ 

Discussion.  —  a.  To  excite  interest,  b.  To  break  up  artificial  training. 
c.  To  cultivate  independence,  d.  To  develop  originality  and  individu- 
ality, e.  To  dissipate  stupidness  and  insipidity.  /.  To  teach  pupils  to 
think  for  themselves. 

Reflection.  —  a.  To  think  in  order  to  learn  to  write,  b.  To  evolve 
thoughts  for  ourselves,  c.  To  cultivate  a  reflective  and  creative  cast  of 
mind.  d.  To  inquire  into  the  reason  of  things ;  to  search  for  causes  and 
effects. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.  261 

Writing  a  Composition.  —  1.  Subject.  2.  Matter.  3.  Analysis. 
4.  Amplification. 

Subject.  —  a.  The  teacher  assigns  the  subject  to  the  pupil,  h.  Pupil 
select  and  insert  topics  for  themselves,     c.  Subject  should  be  adapted. 

Analysis.  —  a.  Make  an  outline.     I.  Let  it  be  logical. 

Amplification.  —  a.  Present  facts  in  an  orderly  manner,     h.  Sentences 
clear  and  correct,     c.  Style  suited  to  the  subject. 
First.  —  Introduction. 
Second.  —  Subject  Matter. 
Third.  — ClosQ. 

General  Directions.  —  1.  Require  pupils  to  use  paper  of  uniform 
size.  2.  The  subject  should  be  written  at  the  top  of  the  page  on  the  mid- 
dle of  the  first  line.  3.  Leave  a  blank  between  the  heading  and  the  com- 
position. 4.  Leave  a  margin  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  page,  to  allow 
for  corrections.  5.  The  first  line  of  each  paragraph  should  be  indented 
about  one  inch.  6.  Writing  neat  and  legible.  7.  Signature  on  a  line 
below  the  close  of  the  composition,  near  the  right-hand  edge.  8.  Compo- 
sition folded  neatly.  9.  The  name  of  writer,  the  subject,  and  date  on  the 
"back  of  the  composition. 

Corrections.  —  1.  Promptly  handed  in  on  time,  for  corrections.  2. 
Corrections,  as  a  rule,  to  be  made  by  the  teacher.  3.  Corrections  include 
orthography,  punctuation,  use  of  capitals,  hyphens,  apostrophes,  construc- 
tion of  sentences,  etc.  (Severe  criticism  at  first  may  discourage  young 
writers.)  4.  Indicate  errors  rather  than  correct  them.  5.  Draw  a  line 
under  each  error,  and  indicate  the  error  by  a  symbol  in  the  margin. 
6.  Pupils  copy  in  a  composition  book  the  corrected  composition. 

Reading  Compositions.  —  a.  Let  the  compositions  be  read  by  one  of 
the  pupils,  h.  Appoint  an  editor,  and  have  the  composition  copied  into 
a  paper,  to  be  read  before  the  school,  c.  Let  the  paper  contain  items  of 
news,  amusing  incidents,  wit,  humor,  poetry,  advertisements,  notices, 
mai-riages,  etc.  d.  Let  the  school  be  resolved  into  a  literary  society,  with 
regular  officers,  progi-amme  of  exercises  consisting  of  inaugural  address, 
orations,  recitations,  essays,  answers  to  referred  questions,  etc. 


WORDS. 


"Like  words  made  magical  by  poets  dead, 
Wherein  the  music  of  all  meaning  is 
The  sense  hath  garnered,  or  the  soul  divined; 
They  mingle  with  our  life's  ethereal  part, 
Sweetening  and  gathering  sweetness  evermore, 
By  Beauty's  franchise,  disenthralled  of  4ime." 

—  Lowell's  CathedraL 


262  LECTURES   ON  THE 

What  does  Emerson  call  words?  Ans.  "Words  are  fossil  poetry." 
Wliat  does  Mirabeau  say  of  words?  Ans.  "Words  are  things."  What 
author  has  expanded  the  thought  into  a  volume  ?  Ans.  William  Mathew, 
Richard  Grant  White.  What  is  Wordsworth's  definition  of  a  word? 
What  objection  to  saying  that  a  word  is  the  vehicle  of  thought  ?  What 
play  in  Shakespeare  contains  these  words :  "  I  thank  thee,  Jew,  for  teach- 
ing me  that  word  "  ?  Ans.  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  IV.,  Sc.  1.  "  Not  a  word  ? 
Not  one  to  throw  at  a  dog."  Shakespeare,  As  You  Like  It,  Act  I.,  Sc.  3. 
By  w  hom  w- ere  these  words  used :  "  But  yesterday  the  word  of  Caesar 
might  have  stood  against  the  world"?  Ans.  By  Mark  Anthony  in  reply 
to  Brutus,  in  Julius  Ccesar,  Act  III.,  Sc.  2.  What  is  Hamlet's  advice  on 
gesture?  Ans.  "Suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the  word  to  the  action." 
Which  is  the  more  important,  the  study  of  words  or  of  thoughts  ?  Should 
we  be  careful  of  our  words  ?     . 

"  O  many  a  shaft,  at  random  sent, 
Finds  mark  the  archer  little  meant ; 
And  many  a  word  at  random  spoken, 
May  soothe  or  wound  a  heart  that's  broken." 

"  Words  are  living  powers."  "  AVords  bear  the  stamp  of  greatness,  or 
of  degradation,  of  glory  or  shame." 

"  Words  are  mighty,  words  are  living ; 
Serpents,  with  their  venomous  stings, 
Or  bright  angels,  crowding  round  us 
With  heaven's  light  upon  their  wings ; 

Every  word  has  its  own  spirit, 

True  or  false,  that  never  dies ; 

Every  word  man's  lips  have  uttered 

Echoes  in  God's  skies." 

Which  are  of  greater  value,  words  or  deeds  ?  Ans.  "  Words  are  wo- 
men, deeds  are  men." —  Herbert. 

"Words  are  the  daughters  of  men,  but  things  the  sons  of  God."—  Dr. 
Johnson. 

What  character  in  Shakespeare  exclaims,  "  AVords,  words,  words !  "  ? 
Ans.    Hamlet. 

AATiat  poem  has  for  its  leading  thought  the  force  of  words  ?  The  Poet, 
by  Tennyson.     Can  words  fully  express  the  meaning? 

"  I  sometimes  hold  it  half  a  sin. 
To  put  in  words  the  grief  I  feel ; 
For  words,  like  nature,  half  reveal. 
And  half  conceal  the  soul  within." 
"To  those  who  know  thee  not,  no  words  can  paint! 
And  those  who  know  thee,  know  all  words  are  faint." 

—  Hannah  More. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.  2(33 

"  No  words  suflBlce  the  secret  soul  to  show, 
For  truth  denies  all  eloquence  to  woe." 

"  Farewell ! 
For  in  that  word,  —  that  fatal  word,  —  howe'er 
We  promise  —  hope  —  believe  —  then  breathes  despair." 

Is  a  word  ever  lost  ?  See  "  Ninth  Bridgewater  Treatise,"  by  Mr.  Bab- 
bage,  and  Chaucer's  "  House  of  Fame."  Is  grief  sometimes  too  deep  to 
be  expressed  in  words  ? 

"  Give  sorrow  words ;  tlie  grief  that  does  not  speak, 
Whispers  the  o'er-fraught  lieart,  and  bids  it  break." 

—  Macbeth,  Act  IV.,  Sc.  3. 

"  How  forcible  are  right  words,"  yet  "  a  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples 
of  gold  in  pictures  of  silver."  —  Solomon. 

Whence  did  Adam  get  words  to  name  the  animals  ?  Should  we  use 
the  simplest  words  ? 

"  When  you  doubt  between  words,  use  the  plainest,  the  commonest, 
the  most  idiomatic.  Eschew  fine  words  as  you  would  rouge ;  love  simple 
ones  as  you  would  native  roses  on  your  cheek." 

"  Simplicity  is  beauty ;  simplicity  is  power." 

"  Learn  the  value  of  a  man's  words  and  expressions,  and  you  know 
him.  He  who  has  a  superlative  for  everything  wants  a  measure  for 
the  great  or  small."  —  Lavater. 

"  It  is  with  words  as  with  sunbeams,  —  the  more  they  are  condensed, 
the  deeper  they  burn."  —  Southey. 

"  The  fool  hath  planted  his  memory  with  an  army  of  words."  —  Shake- 
speare. 

"  The  world  is  satisfied  with  words ;  few  care'  to  dive  beneath  the  sur- 
face." —  Pascal. 


9 


GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  TO  THE  TEACHERS. 

See  that  the  pupils  become  familiar  with  the  tools  of  measurement, 
and  are  able  to  make  application  of  them,  —  a  knowledge  of  definitions 
and  formulas  is  useless  apart  from  experimental  acquaintance. 

Let   things   that   have    to   be    done    be   learned   by    doing 
THEM.  —  Comenius. 

All  spelling  should  prepare  for  composition,  —  talking  with  the  pen  or 
pencil. 


264  LECTURES   ON  THE 

Requisites. 

(a)  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  copy  from  the  blackboard  with  perfect 
accuracy  words  and  sentences. 

(b)  Pupils  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  in  school  should  be  able  to 
reproduce  the  words  and  sentences  taught. 

(c)  Write  words  and  sentences  to  be  copied  in  bold,  distinct,  and 
large  letters. 

(d)  Let  the  written  exercise  be  confined  to  the  child's  vocabulary. 

(e)  Let  the  pupil  read  what  he  writes. 

3.  As  soon  as  the  child  can  tell  something  he  has  learned,  permit  him  to 
write  it. 

Note.  —  Children  take  an  intense  interest  in  what  they  see  and  tell  for 
themselves. 

How  TO  Get  the  Children  to  Talk. 
(a)   Do  something  and  ask  the  children  to  tell  what  you  did ;  let  them 

write  it. 
(6)    Show  an  object  and  let  the  children  tell  something  about  it. 

(c)  Show  objects  and  let  the  children  tell  their  differences,  then 
their  resemblances. 

(d)  Pass  pictures  ;  pupils  write  about  them. 

(e)  Read  some  interesting  story,  and  let  the  children  report  it  in 
writing. 

Note.  —  Let  the  children  read  each  his  own,  and  all  judge  who  has 
told  the  story  well.  Let  the  children  grasp  the  story  in  its  fulness,  and 
narrate  it  in  their  own  language. 

4.  Never  receive  poor  work. 
HoiD  to  prevent  it. 

(a)    If  the  pupil  makes  the  least  mistake,  erase  the  word ;  or  better, 

erase  the  whole  sentence. 
(6)    Erase  all  work  that  is  not  the  pupil's  best  attempt ;  let  them  learn 

to  do  good  work  by  doing  it,  by  doing  it  until  it  is  right,  until  it 

is  well  done  by  every  pupil. 

(c)  Be  very  cautious  about  individual  criticism ;  it  has  a  tendency  to 
repress  free  thought.  Let  criticism  cease  to  be  the  work  of  a 
detective.  Do  not  seize  upon  every  violation  of  law  and  magnify 
the  pupil's  mistakes.  Rather  let  the  advice  be  that  of  a  friend 
seeking  to  make  the  child  a  law  unto  himself. 

(d)  Try  and  make  each  pupil  confident ;  confidence  begets  success, 
(c)    The  teacher  should  inspect  and  mark  every  mistake,  making,  as  a 

rule,  no  comments ;   if  the  same  mistake   is   made  frequently, 
quietly  advise  the  pupil  about  it. 

5.  See  that  children  gain  the  new  knowledge  before  taking  up  additional 
work. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE   ART  OF  TEACHING.  265 


DEFINITIONS. 

I.  Postulate.  —  That  the  object  of  a  definition  is  to  tell  what  a 
thing  is. 

IT.  Deduction.  —  Knowledge  must  go  before  the  definition,  a.  De- 
velop the  correct  idea,  then  give  the  technical  term  (in  primary  grades). 
b.  See  that  the  definition  is  clearly  understood  :  first,  ask  searching  ques- 
tions about  it ;  second,  if  necessary  illustrate  by  objects,  pictures,  draw- 
ings, etc.  c.  In  reading  let  the  meaning  be  inferred  from  the  context, 
rather  than  commit  a  definition  to  memory.  Let  the  pupil  see  that  a 
definition,  instead  of  preceding  a  lesson,  as  it  often  does,  should  be  the 
conclusion  of  a  lesson,  or  of  some  definite  part  of  it ;  it  is  not  the  giving 
of  additional  knowledge,  it  is  the  summing  up,  a  general  truth,  an  abstrac- 
tion, a  deduction. 

III.  Cautions.  —  a.  After  the  definitions  are  thoroughly  understood, 
see  that  the  pupils  memorize  them.  b.  Teach  your  pupils  to  think,  to  reason, 
rather  than  imitate  or  repeat,  c.  See  that  they  understand  subjects,  rather 
than  memorize  books. 


ETIQUETTE. 

It  is  important  to  form  good  manners  and  correct  habits  in  youth. 

DEFINITION. 

The  recognized  forms  of  good  breeding  prescribed  by  good  society ;  respect 
for  one's  self  as  toell  as  respect  for  others. 

OBJECT. 

To  train  pupils  to  form  right  habits  of  action. 

METHOD. 

1.  To  teach  pupils  to  be  uniformly  polite. 

2.  To  inspire  pupils  to  put  down  their  own  faults,  instead  of  trying  to 
put  down  one  another. 

3.  To  do  something  toward  making  all  whom  we  meet  happy. 

4.  To  express  due  deference  to  superiors. 

5.  To  encourage  pupils  to  confess  their  faults. 

6.  To  cultivate  a  spirit  of  forgiveness. 

7.  To  teach  pupils  that  people  need  all  the  kindness  they  can  get  from 
others  in  this  world. 

8.  To  not  offend,  —  this  being  the  first  step  towards  pleasing.     "  The 
small,  sweet  courtesies  of  life  "  are  doubly  dear  to  young  people. 


266  LECTURES  ON  THE 

Let  your  pupils  realize  that  they  iiuist  be  distinguished  by  good  nian> 
ners,  as  good  manners  are  the  outgrowth  of  good  morals. 

"  A  knowledge  of  etiquette  is  a  knowledge  of  the  customs  of  society  at 
its  best.  There  is  no  one  who  may  not  be  instructed  in  some  points  that 
it  is  for  his  advantage  to  know." 

"  The  first  years  of  a  man's  life  are  precious,  since  they  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  the  merit  of  the  rest.  Whatever  care  is  used  in  the  education  of 
children,  it  is  still  too  little  to  answer  the  end." 

"  Manners  and  morals  are  indissolubly  allied,  and  no  society  can  be 
good  where  they  are  bad." 


ORAL    EXAMINATIONS. 

Standard  of  Examinations. 

The  standard  should  be  upon  work  presented  by  the  teacher  as  com- 
pleted.    The  test  in  every  subject  should  be  quality  of  work,  not  quantity. 

Reading. 

(a)  Lowest  primary  grades  should  be  examined  on  the  blackboard,  in 
the  vocabulary  presented  by  the  teacher. 

(p)  Close  attention  should  be  given  to  the  habit  and  power  of  getting 
thought,  before  expressing  it  orally.  The  habit  of  giving  the  thought 
just  as  the  reader  would  talk  should  be  the  criterion. 

(c)  In  the  First,  Second,  and  Third  Readers,  reading  should  be 
selected  that  the  pupils  have  never  seen ;  the  pupils  should  be  able  to 
get  thought  readily,  and  express  it  easily ;  pupils  should  be  able  to  tell 
why  capital  letters  and  punctuation  marks  are  used. 

{(1)  In  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Readers,  reading  should  be  selected  that 
pupils  have  never  seen  (corresponding  to  the  grade  of  work),  and  they 
should  be  able  to  give  the  sense  of  the  passages,  and  the  subject ;  should 
also  be  able  to  assign  a  reason  for  emphasizing  and  inflecting  certain 
words. 

Language. 

(a)  In  the  fifth  and  fourth  grades,  primary  department,  the  test 
should  be  the  ability  to  describe  actions,  pictures,  and  objects,  and  tell 
what  they  have  read  orally ;  also,  be  able  to  correct  the  common  mis- 
takes in  speech. 

(J)  In  the  third,  second,  and  first  primary  grades  the  test  should  be 
readiness  to  describe  pictures  and  objects  accurately,  giving  attention  to 
spelling,  capital  letters,  penmanship,  punctuation,  and  neatness  of  work ; 
also,  ability  to  correct  errors  in  speech,  and  to  give  examples  of  the  telling, 
asking,  commanding,  and  emotional  sentences. 


SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.  267 

(c)  In  the  grammar  classes,  pupils  should  be  required  to  write  on  a 
subject  impromptu,  giving  attention  to  all  of  the  above  points  in  divisions 
(a)  and  (b) ;  be  able  to  correct  grammatical  mistakes,  and  give  reasons 
for  the  same ;  write  the  different  kinds  of  sentences,  and  tell  what  termi- 
nal points  should  be  placed  after  them  ;  also,  analyze  sentences,  and  parse 
the  words;  define  the  parts  of  speech,  and  write  sentences  illustrating 
their  use. 

Penmanship. 

(a)  Classes :  Single  letters  in  their  order ;  also,  capital  letters ;  analy- 
sis of  the  same  by  all  classes,  except  the  fifth  grade  primary  departments. 

(b)  In  the  highest  primary  and  grammar  classes,  pupils  should  be 
required  to  write  a  verse  as  a  specimen  of  work.  Attention  should  be 
given  to  spelling,  capital  letters,  punctuation,  and  neatness.  No  work 
should  he  received  unless  scrupulous  care  has  been  taken  in  every  particular. 

Copying  Sentences.  —  Spelling. 

In  the  low^est  primary  grades  the  standard  should  be  absolute  perfec- 
tion in  copying  sentences  from  the  blackboard,  the  words  of  which  (sentences) 
have  been  previously  copied  by  the  pupils.  In  the  highest  primary  and 
grammar  grades  sentences  should  be  dictated. 

Dictation. 

Teachers  should  keep  a  list  of  words  learned  by  the  pupils,  and  the 
sentences  dictated  should  be  composed  of  these  words.  If  there  is  a  single 
failure  in  spelling,  capital  letters,  or  punctuation,  the  sentence  should  be 
marked  wrong.     Sentences  should  be  given  but  once. 

Teachers  should  present  the  principal  and  superintendent  with  a  list  of 
words  taught. 

Number. 

All  the  primary  classes  should  be  examined  orally  with  and  without 
objects.  Pupils  should  be  examined  upon  the  work  given  by  the  teacher 
as  already  taught.  The  test  should  be  readiness  in  writing  and  reading 
numbers,  readiness  and  accuracy  in  computation,  both  in  oral  and  written 
work. 

Arithmetic. 

Pupils  should  be  examined  upon  work  presented  by  the  teacher  as 
completed. 

All  classes  in  the  grammar  department,  and  the  highest  classes  in  the 
primary  department,  should  be  examined  on  intellectual  arithmetic.  Ac- 
curacy and  rapidity  in  computation  in  the  lowest  primary  classes  should 
be  the  test,  and  u\  the  grammar  gTades  the  pupils  should  be  required  to 


268       LECTURES  ON  THE  SCIENCE  AND  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

give  reasons  for  the  different  steps,  and  solve  practical  problems  embraced 
under  the  work  as  completed. 

Drawing. 

In  the  lowest  primary  grades,  pupils  should  be  required  to  draw  the 
different  kinds  of  lines.  The  main  point  in  these  grades  should  be  to 
find  out  if  the  pupils  have  a  correct  idea  of  the  different  kinds  of  lines. 

Pupils  should  be  required  to  draw  simple  figures  from  copy ;  in  the 
highest  primary  and  grammar  grades,  pupils  should  be  required  to  draw 
the  different  kinds  of  lines,  define  them,  and  draw  figures  from  dictation 
and  from  memory,  and  original  designs. 

Geography. 

In  the  lowest  primary  grades,  pupils  should  be  required  to  tell  where 
objects  are  in  the  room ;  locate  the  prominent  buildings  and  the  streets ; 
and  locate  and  name  local  land  and  water  divisions.  In  the  highest 
primary  classes,  the  pupils  should  tell  wherein  a  city  differs  from  a  town 
or  village ;  a  county  from  a  state ;  name  and  locate  the  prominent  land 
and  water  divisions  about  the  city ;  uses  of  them ;  tell  the  number  of 
towns  in  the  county,  and  counties  in  the  state ;  draw  a  map  of  the  city, 
locating  the  principal  streets,  public  buildings,  and  draw  a  map  of  the 
county,  and  locate  prominent  villages  and  cities.  In  the  grammar  classes, 
pupils  should  be  required  to  draw  a  map  of  the  city,  the  county,  the 
state,  and  locate  and  name  the  prominent  physical  features,  and  locate 
and  name  the  large  cities.  Should  be  able  to  bound  the  state  and  men- 
tion its  principal  industries.  In  the  highest  grammar  classes,  pupils 
should  be  required  to  pass  an  examination  upon  the  work  presented  by 
the  teacher  as  completed,  draw  a  map  of  the  continents  as  far  as  com- 
pleted, and  locate  the  physical  features. 

General  Exercises. 

Examinations  in  the  lowest  primary  grades  should  be  upon  home, 
food,  clothing,  names  of  the  days  of  the  week,  months  of  the  year,  names 
of  domestic  animals,  different  kinds  of  matter,  and  the  primary  colors. 
In  the  highest  primary  grades,  the  pupils  should  be  examined  upon  well- 
known  forms  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms ;  secondary 
colors ;  table  of  time ;  dollars  and  cents  ;  measurement  by  inches,  feet, 
yards  and  miles ;  general  terms,  as  length,  width,  depth,  area,  surface,  and 
edges;  also  upon  the  gnawers,  cud-chewers,  flesh-eaters,  etc.;  upon  the 
bones  in  the  human  body,  names  and  uses;  muscles;  circulation  and 
respiration ;  and  the  lives  of  a  few  of  the  prominent  men  of  America.  In 
the  grammar  grades,  pupils  should  be  examined  upon  the  above ;  also 
upon  plants,  animals,  air,  wind,  forces,  etc. 


IV. 

SCHOOL   DISCIPLINE, 


SCHOOL  DISOIPLIISrE. 


GENERAL   POINTS. 

Essentials  on  the  Part  of  the  Teacher. 

I.  The  teacher  must  yet  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught^ 
—  absolute  mastery  of  them. 

How  Acquired. 

1.  By  attending  first-class  Public  Schools. 

2.  By  attending  Normal  Schools. 

3.  By  attending  Training  Schools. 

4.  By  attending  Colleges  and  Universities. 

5.  By  close  personal  application. 

IL  The  teacher  must  attain  the  best  modern  methods,  and  seek  to  acquire 
perfection  in  them. 

How  Acquired. 

1.  By  attending  Normal  Schools. 

2.  By  attending  Training  Classes. 

3.  By  attending  Teachers'  Institutes. 

4.  By  thorough  study  of  works  on  teaching. 

5.  By  experimenting  successfully. 

6.  By  rational  experience  in  teaching. 

7.  By  continual  thought,  —  closely  watching    the  unfolding  of  the 

child's  mind. 

8.  By  studying  the  history  of  education,  and  experimental  psychology. 

in.  The  teacher  must  love  the  work  of  teaching  ;  must  possess  an  absolute 
fondness  for  it,  and  take  an  eager  delight  in  it.  If  this  love  of  the  work  is 
not  inborn  and  God-given,  it 

Can  be  Acquired. 

1.  By  cultivating  a  fondness  for  children. 

2.  By  complete  familiarity  with  the  work. 

3.  By  casting  aside  all  thoughts  foreign  to  the  work. 

4.  By  so  working  that  the  occupation  will  be  pleasurable  rather  than 

painful.     All  school  work  should  be  pleasurable. 


272  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE. 

IV.  The  teacher  must  create  a  thirst  for  knowledge,  —  a  strong  and  eager 
desire  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  to  acquire  learning. 

How  Produced. 

Attractive  means. 

1.  By  singing. 

2.  By  marching. 

3.  By  calisthenics. 

4.  By  drills  in  uniform  movement. 

5.  By  drawing  pictures. 

6.  By  illustrations. 

7.  By  story  telling. 

8.  By  reading  stories. 

9.  By  pleasant  tones. 

10.  By  agreeable  manners. 

11.  By  neat  attire. 

12.  By  teaching  objectively. 

13.  By  teaching  one  thing  at  a  time. 

14.  By  arousing  every  power  of  the  mind  to  its  full  activity. 

15.  By  presenting  facts  to  the  mind  through  the  senses. 

Rational  means. 

1.  By  writing. 

2.  By  lucid  analysis. 

3.  By  rational  questioning. 

4.  By  rational  teaching. 

5.  By  the  development  of  clear  ideas. 

6.  By  development  of  thought. 

7.  By  teaching  things  rather  than  words. 

8.  By  the  development  of  clear  and  accurate  perceptions. 

9.  By  having  a  definite  plan  of  work. 

10.  By  proceeding  from  the  simple  to  the  more  difficult. 

11.  By  requiring  that  things  that  have  to  be  done  be  learned  by  doing 

them. 

12.  By  topical  teaching. 

13.  By  developing  mental  power. 

V.  The  teacher  must  attain  absolute  mastery  over  self,  —  ready  power  to 
control  and  determine ;  a  will-power  guided  by  reason. 

How  Acquired. 

1.  By  preservation  of  a  sound  constitution. 

2.  By  cultivation  of  good  habits. 

3.  By  cultivation  of  great  and  unselfish  motives. 


SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  273 

4.  By  congenial  and  elevating  companionship. 

5.  By  cultivating  social  and  devotional  instincts. 

6.  By  the  exercise  of  careful  and  studied  judgment. 

7.  By  admission  of  errors  of  judgment. 

8.  By  studying   to  discover   our  faults,  and  willingly  hearing  criti- 

cisms. 

CAUTIONS. 

1.  See  that  the  will  is  governed  by  reason. 

2.  Use  authority  only  when  attraction  fails. 

3.  Don't  let  the  will  be  governed  by  unreason,  —  such   as  moods, 

feelings,  failures,  disappointments,  sickness,  intemperance,  etc. 

No  man  is  free  who  cannot  command  himself.  —  Pythagoras. 

That  person  is  of  all  others  the  most  powerful  who  has  himself  in  his 
own  power.  —  Seneca. 

The  worst  education  which  teaches  self-denial  and  self-control,  is 
better  than  the  best  which  teaches  everything  else,  and  not  these. — 
Bacon. 


SCHOOL    DISCIPLINE. 

Definition.  —  Discipline  is  that  restraining  influence  which  produces 
and  sustains  order,  and  prompts  the  pupil  to  diligent  study  and  good 
conduct. 

Order.  —  Order  limits  energy  to  the  work  of  the  school ;  that  is,  the 
best  order  in  which  the  best  work  can  be  done.  Order  implies  fitness  of 
condition. 

Postulate.  —  True  rational  discipline  does  away  with  all  need  of 
arbitrary  discipline. 

Object.  —  The  object  of  school  discipline  is  to  train  pupils  to  right 
habits  of  thought  and  action,  —  to  conduce  to  permanent  well-doing. 

Results.  —  The  result  should  be  to  teach  pupils  to  govern  them- 
selves. 

Two  kinds  of  discipline  are  in  use  to-day :  ihejirst  ruling  by  love,  and 
the  second  governing  by /ear.  Instead  of  offering  bribes  and  using  threats, 
the  young  should  be  so  influenced  in  their  surroundings  that  they  may 
see  virtue  and  happiness  united.  Both  of  the  methods  —  love  and  fear  — 
may  be  artificial  and  temporary.  The  teacher  should  seek  from  the 
beginning  to  form  correct  habits,  and  then  there  will  be  no  occasion  to 
reform  bad  ones. 


274  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE. 

The  child  should  be  taught  that  it  is  its  duty  to  do  right,  and  that  it 
should  do  right  because  it  is  right.  The  teacher  should  not  procure  exer- 
tion by  a  bribe,  because  the  eifort  is  felt  to  be  a  sacrifice,  and  it  will  not 
be  repeated  without  a  like  inducement.  It  is  useless  to  drive  a  boy  or  a 
girl  to  work,  or  cause  either  to  work  through  fear ;  the  task  maybe  done, 
but  then  there  will  be  no  heart  in  it,  and  the  coercion  will  be  resented. 

There  is  only  one  way  which  can  create  a  new  habit  of  industry  capa- 
ble of  supplanting  the  old  habit  of  indolence,  and  that  is  the  awakening 
oi  pleasure  in  work /or  its  own  sake.  The  teacher  should  make  all  school 
work  pleasurable.  Give  a  pupil  a  sense  of  pleasure  in  work,  and  idleness 
will  be  cured  and  the  need  of  arbitrary  discipline  obviated. 

K  parents  and  teachers  better  understood  the  child's  mind  there  would 
be  a  relief  of  much  of  the  drudgery  in  school  discipline.  Under  the  pres- 
ent undeveloped  condition  of  our  knowledge  of  child-nature  in  the  family 
and  in  the  school,  we  can  only  approximate  the  desired  results.  In  view 
of  this,  we  will  specifically  speak  of  some  of  the  causes,  preventives,  and 
correctives  which  may  be  used  in  order  to  secure  more  effective  discipline 
in  the  schools. 


I.    COMMUNICATION. 

A.  Causes. 

1.  Lack  of  teaching  and  training  on  the  part  of  the  parents. 

2.  Lack  of  wisdom  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

B.  Preventives. 

1.  By  suggestion. 

2.  By  advice. 

3.  By  reproof. 

4.  By  making  communication  unpopular. 

5.  By  licensing  communication. 

6.  By  busy  work. 

7.  By  appealing  to  the  pupil's  intelligence. 

C.  Correctives. 

1.  Separate  seatmates. 

2.  Restraint  of  personal  liberties. 

3.  Request  pupils  to  report  their  own  offences  to  the  teacher  ])ri- 

vatehj. 

4.  Encourage   pupils   to   confess    their    faults,    and    forgive    every 

offender  who  reports. 

5.  Administer  punishment  by  a  written  communication. 

6.  Detention  after  school,  —  an  extreme  measure. 


SQHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  275 

II.     TARDINESS. 

A.  Causes. 

1.  Lack  of  systematic  family  government, 

2.  Thoughtlessness. 

3.  Overweening  sentimental  indulgence  on  the  part  of  parents. 

4.  Parents'  covetousness. 

5.  Exacting  too  much  of  the  pupil. 

6.  Requiring  work  unsuitable  to  the  age  of  the  pupiL 

7.  Impartiality. 

8.  Unkindness. 

9.  Lack  of  earnestness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

10.  Lack  of  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

11.  Lack  of  promptness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

B.  Preventives. 

1.  By  pleasant  and  instructive  opening  exercises. 

2.  By  a  pleasant  reception  on  entering  the  school. 

3.  By  creating  a  love  for  study. 

4.  By  cultivating  pride  in  habitual  promptness. 

5.  By  making  play-grounds  attractive. 

6.  By  introducing  new  plays. 

7.  By  taking  part  in  the  plays. 

8.  By  reports  to  parents. 

9.  By  visiting  parents. 

10.  By  an  exposition  of  the  pernicious  influence  on  the  schools. 

11.  By  retractive  power  of  personal  example. 

12.  By  presentation  of  a  written  excuse  from  the  parent. 

C.  Correctives. 

1.  Cessation  of  exercise  when  pupils  enter  the  school. 

2.  Silent  reception  of  the  pupil. 

3.  Detention  after  school. 

4.  Private  admonition. 

5.  Rebuke  before  the  school. 

6.  Severe  reproof. 

7.  Refuse  admission  to  the  pupil,  —  a  severe  measure. 

III.     ABSENCE. 
A.   Causes. 

1.  Lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  parent. 

2.  Lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  or  pupiL 

3.  Lack  of  proper  classification  of  the  pupils. 

4.  Lack  of  rational  teaching. 


276  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE. 

5.  Conflict  of  authority, 

(j.  Abuse  of  authority. 

7.  Abdication  of  authority. 

8.  Pevishness  and  fretfulness  of  the  teacher. 

9.  Personal  discomfort. 

10.  Favoritism  by  the  teacher. 

11.  Parents'  demand  of  child's  services. 

12.  Unnecessary  exposure  of  ignorance  by  the  teacher. 

13.  Unjust  accusations. 

14.  Lack  of  sympathy. 

15.  Backwardness  in  studies. 

16.  Improper  grading. 

17.  A  failure  to  understand  subjects. 

18.  Neglect  of  private  study. 

19.  Teacher  not  recognizing  the  principles  of  mental  development. 

20.  Teacher  neglecting  to  take  child  into  confidence. 

21.  Improper  home  associations. 

22.  Lack  of  suitable  garments. 

B.  Preventives. 

1.  By  making  school  work  attractive. 

2.  By  taking  an  interest  in  the  pupils'  studies  and  plays. 

3.  By  thorough  and  rational  teaching. 

4.  By  visitation  of  parents. 

5.  By  weekly  and  monthly  reports. 

6.  By  cultivating  a  pride  in  regular  attendance. 

7.  By  uniform  kindness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

8.  By  proper  appreciation  of  work. 

9.  By  earnestness  of  the  teacher. 

10.  By  consideration  in  the.  treatment  of  mistakes  and  faults. 

11.  By  uniform  cheerfulness. 

C.  Correctives. 

1.  Gentle  rebuke. 

2.  Disapprobation  of  the  teacher. 

3.  Extra  study  outside  of  school. 

4.  Visitation  of  parents. 

5.  Severe  reprimand. 

6.  Public  rebuke. 

7.  Suspension. 

8.  Expulsion,  —  a  severe  measure. 


SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  277 

IV.     TRUANCY. 

A.  Causes. 

1.  Unpleasant  home  associations. 

2.  Improper  home  training. 

3.  Unsatisfactory  results  in  school  work. 

4.  Severe  administration. 

5.  Lack  of  sympathy. 

B.  Preventives. 

1.  By  making  the  school-room  attractive. 

2.  By  making  school  work  pleasant. 

3.  By  making  all  the  exercises  interesting. 

4.  By  frequent  changes  in  the  exercises. 

5.  By  winning  to  a  love  of  knowledge. 

6.  By  reading,  or  telling  short,  instructive  stories. 

7.  By  experiments  in  the  elementary  natural  sciences. 

8.  By  private  reprimand. 

9.  By  welcoming  the  prodigal  on  his  return. 

10.  By  visiting  pupil's  home. 

11.  By  requesting  pupil  to  reflect  upon  seriousness  of  the  offence. 

12.  By  educating  the  child's  conscience,  so  that  he  shall  regret  the 

waste  of  time  as  a  sin. 

C.  Correctives. 

1.  Severe  reproof. 

2.  Inform  parents. 

3.  Suspension. 

4.  Expulsion. 

V.     QUARRELLING  AND  FIGHTING. 

A.  Causes. 

1.  Lack  of  moral  cultivation. 

2.  Bad  associations. 

3.  Uncontrollable  temper. 

B.  Preventives. 

1.  By  making  the  offence  unpopular. 

2.  By  the  utter  abhorrence  of  the  offence  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

3.  By  the  disapprobation  of  the  teacher. 

4.  By  the  disapproval  of  the  pupils. 

5.  By  enlarging  upon  the  meanness  of  such  acts. 

6.  By  persuading  of  sinfulness. 

7.  By  striving  to  strengthen  the  child's  will  to  do  right. 

8.  By  encouraging  the  pupil  to  practice  self-control. 


278  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE. 

9.   By  watchfulness  of  teacher  during  recesses,  mtermissions,  and 
dismissals. 

10.  By  cultivating  self-respect. 

11.  By  exciting  shame  and  sorrow. 

12.  By  cultivating  a  true  sense  of  honor. 

13.  By  good-natured  ridicule. 

C.   Correctives. 

1.  Separation  of  offenders. 

2.  Deprivation  of  privileges. 

3.  Require  offenders  to  play  alone. 

4.  Severe  reproof. 

5.  Suspension. 

6.  Expulsion,  —  extreme  measure. 

VI.     PERSISTENT    DISOBEDIENCE   AND   WILFULNESS. 

A.  Causes. 

1.  Antagonism  of  parents  to  teacher. 

2.  Antagonism  of  pupil  to  teacher. 

3.  Revengefulness  of  teacher. 

4.  Revengefulness  of  pupil. 

5.  Unmindfulness  of  the  teacher  on  the  first  appearance  of  disobe- 

dience and  wilfulness. 

6.  Weakness  and  uidecision  of  the  teacher. 

B.  Preventives. 

1.  By  not  antagonizing  parents. 

2.  By  not  ridiculing  pupils. 

3.  By  not  using  bitter  sarcasm. 

4.  By  not  using  harsh  tones. 

5.  By  not  driving  strong-willed  pupils  into  obstinacy. 

6.  By  repressing  the  bad  qualities. 

7.  By  needlessly  giving  pain  to  a  pupil. 

8.  By  unnecessary  exposure  of  ignorance,  error,  or  mistakes. 

9.  By  using  patience,  and  bringmg  to  bear  on  the  self-willed  pupil 

the  influence  of  kindness,  sympathy,  and  reason. 

10.  By  impartial  judgment. 

11.  By  example  of  the  teacher. 

C.  Correctives. 

1.  Severe  reproof.  , 

2.  Suspension  from  class. 

3.  Suspension  from  school. 

4.  Expulsion  from  school. 


SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  279 

VII.    IMPERTINENCE   AND   IMPULSIVENESS. 

A.  Causes. 

1.  Neglect  in  early  training. 

2.  Cultivation  of  evil  associates. 

3.  Harboring  revengeful  feelings. 

4.  Physical  weakness. 

B.  Preventives. 

1.  By  treating  pupils  as  human  beings. 

2.  By  recognizing  the  manhood  and  womanhood  of  the  pupils. 

3.  By  being  uniformly  circumspect  in  manner  and  deportment. 

4.  By  refusing  to  listen  to  pupils'  mutterings. 

5.  By  entire  suspension  of  work. 

6.  By  developing  the  higher  motives. 

7.  By  cultivating  the  power  to  resist  wrong. 

8.  By  avoiding  a  laugh  at  the  expense  of  the  pupil. 

9.  By  avoiding  direct  collision  with  the  pupil. 

10.  By  watching  the  will  of  the  pupil  so  that  it  does  not  gain  control 

over  his  reason  and  judgment. 

11.  By  overlooking  childlike  faults  and  not  seizing  upon  every  oppor- 

tunity for  censure. 

12.  By  teaching  and  training  children,  not  merely  telling  them  what 

to  do. 

C   Correctives. 

1.  Let  the  pupil  suffer  the  result  of  his  conduct. 

2.  Severe  reproof. 

3.  Proper  acknowledgment. 

4.  Summary  justice. 

5.  Suspension  of  work. 

6.  Suspension  from  school. 

7.  Expulsion  from  school. 


VIIL    UNTRUTHFULNESS. 
Causes. 

1.  Ignorance. 

2.  Thoughtlessness. 

3.  Selfishness. 

4.  Cowardice. 

5.  Innate  tendency. 

6.  Self-reporting. 


280  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE. 

B.  Preventives. 

1.  By  regarding  all  pupils  as  truthful  until  the  teacher  has  positive 

proof  to  the  contrary. 

2.  By  encouraging  full  and  frank  confession  with  a  remission  of  pen- 

alties. 

3.  By  placing  implicit  confidence  in  pupils. 

4.  By  telling  the  pupils  the  effects  of  untruthfulness,  as, 

(a)  Loss  of  reputation. 

(b)  Loss  of  character. 

(c)  Loss  of  conscience. 

(rf)  General  demoralization. 

5.  By  cultivating  sentiments  of  honor  and  truthfulness. 

6.  By  the  example  of  the  teacher. 

7.  By  the  teachings  of  the  Bible. 

8.  By  indication  of  approval  when  the  child  speaks  the  truth. 

9.  By  not  frightening  the  pupil  by  terrible  denunciations   of  the 

anger  of  God  against  liars. 
10.   By  cultivating  a  spii-it  of  forbearance. 

C.  Correctives. 

1.  Suspension  of  teacher's  confidence. 

2.  Suspension  of  pupil's  confidence. 

3.  Deprivation  of  school  privileges. 

4.  Severe  reproof. 

5.  Confession  followed  hy  acknowledgment. 


IX.    TATTLING. 


A.  Causes. 

i.   Meanness. 

2.  Jealousy. 

3.  Ignorance. 

4.  Selfishness. 

B.  Preventives. 

1.  By  shunning  impropriety. 

2.  By  elevating  and  refining. 

3.  By  the  precepts  of  the  "  Golden  Rule. 

4.  By  persuading  of  sinfulness. 

C.  Correctives. 

1.  Refuse  to  notice  it. 

2.  Disapprobation  of  the  teacher. 

3.  Severe  reprimand. 


SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  281 

X.    LOUD   STUDY. 


A.  Remedies. 

1.  Train  pupils  to  study  with  closed  lips. 

2.  Suspend  exercises  until  quiet  is  restored. 

3.  Appeal  to  pupil's  sense  of  politeness. 

B.  Punishments. 

1.  Reproof. 

2.  Show  impropriety. 

3.  Separation  of  pupils. 


XI.    LAUGHING. 
Remedies. 

1.  By  suspension  of  exercises. 

2.  By  letting  pupils  laugh  until  weary  of  it. 

3.  Reproof. 


XIL    QUESTIONS  DURING  RECITATIONS. 
Remedies. 

1.  By  showing  impropriety. 

2.  By  refusing  to  notice  questions. 

3.  By  prohibiting  them. 

4.  Reproof. 

XIII.     NOISE. 
Remedies. 

1.  By  training  pupils  how  to  walk,  to  sit,  and  to  move. 

2.  By  always  admonishing  them  when  a  command  is  violated. 

3.  By  letting  pupils  try  again,  until  they  do  it  quietly. 

4.  By  quiet  movements  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 


XIV.    WRITING  NOTES. 
Remedies. 

1.  By  destroying  notes  without  reading  them. 

2.  By  reading  the  notes,  omitting  names. 

3.  By  asking  for  the  author  of  the  note.     (As  a  rule,  avoid  public 

exposure.) 

4.  By  private  reprimand. 


282  SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE. 

XV.     LITTER  ON   THE  FLOOR. 
Remedies. 

1.  By  encouraging  neatness. 

2.  By  carefully  inspecting  the  floor  in  the  presence  of  the  pupil,  with- 

out making  any  remarks. 

3.  By  requiring  everything  to  be  done  decei  tly,  and  in  order. 


XVL     UNCLEANNESS. 
Remedies. 

1.  By  insisting  that  the  pupils  shall  give  proper  attention  to  sanitary 

conditions. 

2.  By  permitting  pupils  to  leave  the  school-room,  to  be  admitted 

when  in  proper  condition. 

3.  By  visiting  parents  and  finding  out  the  cause. 

4.  By  sending  pupil  home,  —  stating  cause. 

5.  The  neat  attire  of  the  teacher. 

6.  By  habitual  attention  to  the  cleanliness  of  the  school-room. 


XVII.     LISTLESSNESS. 
Remedies. 

1.  By  securing  proper  ventilation. 

2.  By  securing  even  temperature,  —  75°. 

3.  By  avoiding  concert  recitations. 

4.  By  avoiding  the  practice  of  "  keeping  in  "  pupils  at  recess,  or  after 

school,  for  failure  in  lessons,  or  behavior. 

5.  By  giving  adequate  attention  to  preparatory  work. 

6.  By  carefully  inspecting  the  work  of  each  pupil. 

7.  By  exhibiting  a  real  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  pupil. 


XVIII.    PROFANITY. 
Preventives. 

1.  Teach  the  children  the  sinfulness  of  profane  speaking. 

2.  Train  pupils  to  perfect  purity  of  speech. 


GENERAL  POINTS. 

1.  Provide  proper  means  for  the  activity  of  children. 

2.  Train  pupils  not  to  act  without  weighing  motives,  feelings,  or 

claims. 

3.  Do  not  attempt  to  instil  too  many  habits  at  once. 


SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE.  283 

4.  Concern  yourself  with  the  general  welfare  of  each  pupil. 

5.  Deal  openly,  justly,  and  resolutely  on  all  occasions ;  and  reprove 

openly,  when  the  offence  has  been  open. 

6.  Distinguish  between  offences  that  originate  from  ignorance,  for- 

getfulness,  or  sinfulness. 

7.  Lead  pupils  to  govern  themselves. 

8.  Preventive  is  better  than  punishment. 

9.  The  preventive  of  evil  is  better  than  the  cure. 

10.  Reform  the  offender. 

11.  Do  not  make  threat  of  punishment  in  advance  of  offences. 

12.  Let  the  child  learn  to  be  obedient  by  being  obedient. 

13.  Captivate  the  right  doers,  and  capture  the  wrong  doers. 

14.  Cultivate  a  public  opinion  in  school  in  favor  of  right. 

15.  Strong  terms  of  reproof  should  be  sparingly  used,  in  order  to  be 

effective. 

16.  He  best  uses  punishment  who  uses  it  least. 

17.  Bear  in  mind  that  loss  of  temper,  however  excusable,  is  really  a 

victory  to  wrong  doers. 

18.  Minimum  of  punishment  is  the  maximum  of  qualification. 

19.  Make  your  punishment  light,  but  certain  as  the  rising  sun. 

20.  Let  your  government  be  steady,  uniform,  and  consistent. 

21.  Manifest  a  real  sympathy  for  children,  and  an  earnest  desire  for 

their  happiness  and  improvement. 

22.  Secure  the  love  and  respect  of  your  pupils,  and  retain  it. 

23.  Let  duty  be  above  all  consequences. 

24.  Require  the  pupils  to  have  a  place  for  everything.     Teacher  see 

that  everything  is  in  its  place. 

25.  Pupils  should  leave  the  seat  only  by  the  permission  of  the  teacher. 

26.  Pupils  should   always  be  held   accountable  for  proper  care  of 

property. 

27.  Pupils  should  be  taught  to  give  quiet  and  respectful  attention 

when  being  addressed. 


ADAMS'S    PAPER. 


To  give  the  condition  of  the  Quincy  schools  before  Supt.  Parker 
assumed  charge  of  them,  how  the  subsequent  work  was  done,  and  what 
was  accomplished  under  his  supervision,  the  following  abstract  of  a  paper 
by  Charles  F.  Adams,  Jr.,  is  inserted. 


THE  NEW  DEPARTURE  IN  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS 
OF  QUINCY. 


The  changes  and  experiments  made  in  the  Quincy  schools  during 
the  five  years  of  Col.  Parker's  superintendency  caused  more  than  local 
interest.  Mr.  Adams  was  instrumental  in  producing  the  reform,  and  the 
work  justifies  a  particular  statement  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  af- 
fairs which  preceded  and  led  to  it.  This  statement  will  not  be  without 
general  value,  as  that  condition  of  affairs  was  by  no  means  peculiar  to 
Quincy,  and  the  results  reached  are  attainable  anywhere. 

Object  of  the  Changes. 

The  object  of  the  changes  and  experiments  was  to  secure  a  thoroughly 
good  common-school  education  at  a  reasonable  cost.  The  two  points  of 
excellence  and  economy  were  to  be  kept  clearly  in  view,  and  neither  was 
to  be  subordinated  to  the  other. 

The  Schools  in  a  State  of  Immobility. 

A  retrospect  of  ten  years  discovered  no  very  remarkable  results.  The 
committee  found,  on  examination,  that  most  of  the  pupils  who  had  finished 
the  grammar  course  of  study  could  neither  speak  nor  spell  their  own  lan- 
guage correctly,  nor  read  and  write  it  with  that  elegance  which  is  desir- 
able. The  Quincy  schools  were  neither  better  nor  worse  than  those  of 
surrounding  towns. 

How  THE  Examinations  were  Formerly  Conducted. 

A  day  was  publicly  set  aside  for  each  school,  and  on  that  day  the  chil- 
dren were  present  in  their  best  clothes.  The  committee  sat  on  the  plat- 
form in  dignified  silence,  and  the  teacher  conducted  the  exercises  over  safe 
and  familiar  grounds.  The  exercises  closed  with  some  peculiarly  un- 
natural display  of  childish  declamation.  The  teacher  asked  the  members 
of  the  committee  to  gratify  the  children  with  a  few  remarks,  —  which 
were  always  of  a  highly  commendatory  character.  After  it  was  over, 
the  committee  knew  nothing  more  about  the  school  than  they  did  before 
it  began ;  and,  as  for  tests,  there  were  none. 


2SS  'J^tlE   NEW   DEPARTURE 

The  ever-present  object  in  the  teacher's  mind  was  to  nave  his  or  her 
school  pass  a  creditable  examination ;  and,  to  insure  this,  the  teacher 
unconsciously  turned  his  scholars  into  parrots,  and  made  a  meaningless 
farce  of  education.  Certain  motions  had  to  be  gone  through,  but  for  real 
results  there  were  none.  The  whole  thing  was  a  sham.  It  was,  in  a 
word,  all  smatter,  veneering,  and  cram. 

How  THE  New  Committee  Conducted  the  Examinations. 

A  special  branch  of  studies  was  assigned  to  each  member  of  the  com- 
mittee ;  and,  during  the  examination,  the  schools  were  taken  wholly  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  instructors.  The  results  were  deplorable.  The  schools 
went  to  pieces.  Although  the  pupils  in  the  grammar  schools  could  parse 
and  construe  sentences,  and  point  out  the  various  parts  of  speech  with 
great  facility,  repeating  correctly  and  with  readiness  the  rules  of  grammar 
applicable  in  each  case,  yet,  when  called  upon  to  write  an  ordinary  letter, 
they  were  utterly  unable  to  apply  the  rules  and  principles  they  had  so 
painfully  learned,  or  to  form  a  single  sentence,  or  to  follow  any  rule  of 
composition.  So,  also,  as  respects  reading.  Rote-reading,  so  to  speak,  — 
that  is,  the  practised  reading  of  certain  familiar  pieces  in  given  Readers, 
—  had  been  brought  to  a  point  of  very  considerable  perfection.  Where 
the  severer  test  of  sight-reading,  —  that  is,  the  reading  of  an  ordinary 
book  which  the  pupil  had  never  seen  before  it  was  put  by  the  examiner 
into  his  hands,  —  where  this  test  was  applied,  the  result  was  simply  bewil- 
dering. The  greater  part  of  the  pupils  could  merely  stammer  and  bungle 
along,  much  as  a  better-educated  person  does  when  reading  a  book  in 
some  language  with  which  he  is  only  imperfectly  acquainted.  It  was 
found,  also,  that  after  eight  years'  of  school-teaching,  the  children,  as  a 
whole,  could  neither  write  with  facility  nor  read  fluently.  The  fact  was, 
that  the  examinations  had  shown  that  in  far  too  many  cases  they  could 
neither  read  nor  write  at  all.  The  school  system  had  fallen  into  a  nit. 
A  gTeat  multiplicity  of  studies  had  in  one  way  and  another  been  intro- 
duced, and  each  was  taught  by  itself. 


Waste  of  Public  Money. 

It  was  plain  to  the  committee  that  a  great  waste  of  public  money  was 
steadily  going  on  ;  but  of  the  amount  expended  not  fifty  cents  out  of  each 
dollar  were  effectively  spent.  It  was  a  simple  question  whether  they 
w^ould  leave  things  as  they  found  them,  or  attempt  a  wholly  new  departure. 
The  cost  of  the  schools  could  not  be  reduced,  but  their  quality  could  be 
improved. 


IN  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS  OF  QUINCY.  28i) 

Members  op  the  Committee  Unequal  to  the  Ta8K. 

The  committee  found  it  useless  to  attempt  any  steady  improvement 
through  the  efforts  of  individual  members.  They  were  busy  men  and  not 
specialists  in  education. 

Committees  elected  by  popular  vote  are  entirely  unequal  to  any  sus- 
tained effort;  and  only  through  sustained  effort  can  any  permanent 
improvement  be  infused  into  teachers,  and  steady  direction  given  to  it. 
Intelligent  direction  could  only  be  attained  through  a  trained  superin- 
tendent. 

The  committee  determined  to  ask  the  town  to  employ  a  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  and  to  put  the  working  out  of  the  new  system  into  his 
hands.  The  authorities  of  the  town  granted  permission  to  the  com- 
mittee, and  the  members  began  to  canvass  for  the  man.  Xow,  the  first 
serious  difficulty  presented  itself  in  the  practical  selection  of  an  efficient 
superintendent. 

The  ordinary  superintendent  is  apt  to  be  a  grammar-school  teacher,  a 
retired  clergyman,  or  local  politician  out  of  a  job,  who  has  no  more  idea 
of  the  processes  of  mental  development  or  the  science  of  training  the 
mind  than  the  average  schoolmaster  has  of  the  object  of  teaching 
grammar. 

The  committee  desired  to  obtain  a  trained  specialist,  knowing  that  it 
would  be  as  manifestly  absurd  to  try  to  elevate  the  schools  without  such 
a  man  as  it  would  be  to  try  to  manage  a  college  without  a  president. 

The  committee  recognized  this  fact,  that  the  superintendency  had 
actually  fallen  into  a  sort  of  discredit  through  the  wretched  substitutes 
for  trained  men  to  whom  towns  and  cities  have  in  their  need  been  com- 
pelled to  have  recourse.  Everything  depended  on  the  selection  of  the 
right  man.  The  only  way  to  improve  the  schools  was  to  concentrate  the 
directing  individuality  in  one  man,  and  trust  him  to  infuse  his  spirit  into 
the  others. 

Col.  F.  W.  Parker  Selected  to  do  the  Work. 

After  some  desultory  discussion  of  candidates,  they  chanced  across 
•one  who  had  not  only  himself  taught,  but  in  teaching  had  become  pos- 
sessed with  the  idea  that  it  was  a  science,  and  that  he  did  not  understand 
it.  Accordingly  he  had  gone  abroad  in  search  of  that  training  which  he 
was  unable  to  get  in  America,  and  at  a  comparatively  mature  age  had 
made  himself  master  of  the  modern  German  theories  of  common  school 
education. 

The  opportunity  was  offered  to  Col.  Parker,  and  under  circumstances 
peculiarly  favorable  to  success. 


290  THE   NEW   DEPARTURE 

The  Committee   Strong  in  the  Confidence  of  the  People,  and 
Holding  Office  with  a  Degiiee  of  Permanence. 

The  committee  had  gone  to  work  to  remedy  matters ;  but,  as  usually 
happens  in  such  cases,  they  had  succeeded  only  in  destroying  the  old 
system  without  developing  a  new  one.  It  gradually,  therefore,  had  begun 
to  dawn  upon  them  that  they  had  taken  a  larger  contract  on  their  hands 
than  they  had  at  all  intended.  Realizing  this,  —  conscious  of  the  fact 
that  they  themselves  were  unequal  to  the  work  before  them,  —  the  mem- 
bers of  the  committee  were  also  sensible  enough  to  know  that  an  agent 
to  be  successful  must  have  a  chance.  He  must  not  be  continually  ham- 
pered and  thwarted  by  unnecessary  interference.  They  were  not  jealous 
of  their  little  authority.  The  superintendent's  plans  were  submitted,  and 
the  committee  gave  them  consideration.  After  the  plans  were  approved, 
the  superintendent  had  a  free  field  in  which  to  carry  them  out,  with  the 
understanding  that  by  the  results,  and  the  results  only,  would  he  be 
judged.  While  the  members  of  the  committee  had  ideas  of  their  own, 
as  well  as  the  superintendent,  yet  in  no  instance  did  the  superintendent 
set  aside  the  less  clearly  defined  ideas  of  the  committee.  Between  the 
superintendent  and  the  committee  there  was  no  conflict. 

The  System  Marked  by  Intense  Individuality. 

The  specialty  of  the  superintendent  was  primary  instruction.  The 
result  was  a  gradual  revolution  in  the  entire  system.  The  essence  of 
the  new  system  was  that  there  was  no  system  about  it ;  it  was  marked 
by  intense  individuality. 

Mechanical  Work  Ignored. 

The  programme  found  no  place  anywhere  in  it ;  on  the  contrary,  the  last 
new  theory,  so  curiously  amplified  in  some  of  our  larger  cities,  that  vast 
numbers  of  children  should  be  taught  as  trains  on  railroads  are  run,  on  a 
time-table  principle,  —  that  they  are  here  now,  that  they  will  be  at  such 
another  point  to-morrow,  and  at  their  terminus  at  such  a  date,  —  this 
whole  theory  was  emphatically  dismissed.  Experiments  were  to  be  cau- 
tiously tried,  and  results  from  time  to  time  noted.  The  revolution  was 
all  pervading.  Kothing  escaped  its  influence ;  it  began  with  the  alphabet 
and  extended  into  the  last  efforts  of  the  grammar-school  course. 

The  New  Departure  Changed  the  Manner  of  Teaching. 

The  change  that  excited  the  greatest  interest  was  at  the  very  begin- 
ning. The  old  "  dame  school "  disappeared  at  once.  In  place  of  it  ap- 
peared something  as  different  as  light  from  darkness.     The  alphabet  was 


IN  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS  OF  QUINCY.  291 

no  longer  taught.  In  place  of  the  old,  lymphatic,  listless,  "school-marm," 
pressing  into  the  minds  of  tired  and  listless  children  the  mystic  signifi- 
cance of  certain  hieroglyphics,  instead  of  this  time-honored  machine 
process,  young  women  full  of  life  and  nervous  energy  found  themselves 
surrounded  at  the  blackboard  with  groups  of  little  children  who  were 
learning  how  to  read  almost  without  knowing  it ;  learning  how  to  read, 
in  a  word,  exactly  as  they  had  before  learned  to  talk,  not  by  rule,  and 
rote,  and  by  piecemeal,  but  altogether  and  by  practice. 

The  hours  of  school  were  kept  diversified ;  the  fact  was  recognized 
that  little  children  were,  after  all,  little  children  still,  and  that  long  con- 
finement was  irksome  to  them.  Blocks  and  toys  were  used  to  anmse 
and  instruct,  and  occasionally  the  exercises  were  stopped  that  all  might 
join  in  physical  movement. 

This  system  was  harder  for  the  teachers,  as  it  called  on  them  to  be 
active  and  throw  themselves  into  the  work.  While  more  exhausting,  it 
was  more  inspiriting.  The  children  were  delighted  with  the  school,  and 
the  teachers  became  conscious  of  individuality,  and  took  a  perceptible 
pride  in  the  work.  She  felt  in  fact  that  she  was  doing  something  in  a 
new  way,  and  doing  it  uncommonly  well. 

The  Effect  on  the  Children  Pleasing. 

The  effect  produced  by  the  change  was,  -however,  the  point  of  interest. 
Going  to  school  ceased  to  be  a  homesick  tribulation.  The  children  went 
to  school  because  they  loved  to  go.  The  simple  fact  was,  that  they  were 
happier,  and  more  amused,  and  better  contented  at  school  than  at  home. 

The  drudgery  of  the  impossible  primer  no  longer  made  infant  life  mis- 
erable. The  alphabet  was  robbed  of  its  terrors,  and  stole  upon  them 
unawares ;  while  the  most  confounding  thing  to  the  members  of  the  com- 
mittee was,  that  in  hearing  the  primaries  read,  not  a  child  among  them 
could  repeat  its  letters,  or  even  know  their  names,  unless,  perchance,  to 
the  teacher's  increased  trouble  they  had  been  taught  at  home. 

Experiments  Tested  by  Practical  Results. 

The  method,  after  four  years,  ceased  to  be  an  experiment,  as  proven 
by  the  experience  of  parents  and  teachers,  as  well  as  observed  in  the  chil- 
dren.    The  practical  results  obtained  are  self-convincing. 

All  now  join  in  their  testimony  that  the  ways  of  nature  are  the  easiest 
ways.  The  lesson  is  not  a  very  profound  one ;  and  it  is  strange,  indeed, 
that  it  took  so  long  to  find  it  out.  A  child  learns  to  talk  and  icalk  —  the 
two  most  difficult  things  it  is  called  on  to  learn  in  its  whole  life  —  with- 
out any  instruction,  and  by  simple  practice.    The  practice  of  learning  is 


292  THE  NEW  DEPARTURE 

not  painful  to  it  or  ^yea^iso^le  to  others ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  an  amuse- 
ment to  both.  Why  the  same  process  should  not  have  been  pursued  in 
other  and  less  difficult  branches  of  education,  is  not  apparent.  One  thing 
only  is  clear :  it  was  not  pursued.  In  place  of  it  an  arbitraiy  system  of 
names  and  sounds,  having  no  significance  in  themselves,  and  of  rules  and 
formulas  absolutely  unintelligible  except  to  the  mature  intellect,  was 
adopted;  and  with  these,  generation  after  generation  of  children  have 
been  tortured.  Only  now  do  we  deign,  in  imparting  knowledge,  to  give 
any  attention  to  natural  processes,  which  have  forever  been  going  on  be- 
fore our  eyes  and  in  our  families ;  and  yet  we  profess  to  think  that  there 
is  no  science  in  primary  education,  and  that  all  there  is  to  it  can  be- 
learned  in  a  few  hours. 

The  Reforms  Instituted. 

The  new  departm-e  started  with  the  Quincy  primaries,  and  it  left  little 
in  them  that  had  not  undergone  a  change.  The  reorganization  was  com- 
plete. This,  however,  was  entirely  the  work  of  Superintendent  Parker ; 
the  committee  simply  gave  liim  a  free  field  to  experiment  in,  and  the  re- 
sult fully  justified  them  in  so  doing.  Ascending  into  the  several  grades 
of  grammar  schools,  the  case  was  somewhat  different.  The  committee 
there  had  their  own  views,  and  those  views  were  little  else  than  an  em- 
phatic protest  against  the  whole  present  tendency  of  the  educational  sys- 
tem of  Massachusetts,  —  whether  school,  academy,  or  university.  If  there 
is  one  thing  which  may  be  considered  more  characteristic  of  that  system 
of  late  years  than  another,  it  is  its  tendency  to  multiply  branches  of 
study. 

The  school-year  has  become  one  long  period  of  diffusion  and  cram,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  successfully  pass  a  stated  series  of  examinations. 
This  leads  directly  to  superficiary.  Smatter  is  the  order  of  the  day.  To 
enter  college,  the  boy  of  seventeen  must  know  a  little  of  everything ;  but 
it  is  not  necessary  for  him  to  know  anything  well,  —  not  even  how  to 
write  his  own  language.  From  this,  the  vicious  system  has  gone  up 
through  the  professional,  and  down  through  the  high,  to  the  very  lowest 
grade  of  grammar  school.  Xo  matter  whether  it  can  understand  it  or 
not,  the  child  must  be  taught  a  little  of  everything ;  at  any  rate  enough 
of  it  to  pass  an  exammation. 

Against  this  whole  theory  and  system  the  Quincy  school  committee 
resolutely  set  their  faces.  They  did  not  believe  in  it ;  they  would  have 
nothing  to  do  with  it.  Instead  of  being  multiplied,  the  number  of 
studies  should,  they  insisted,  be  reduced.  It  was  impossible  to  teach 
everything  in  a  grammar-school  course,  and  for  the  vast  majority  of  chil- 
dren a  thorough  grounding  in  the  elements  of  knowledge  was  all  that 


IN  THE  CX)MMON  SCHOOLS  OF  QUINCY.  293 

could  be  given.  The  attempt  to  give  more  simply  resulted  in  not  giving 
that. 

In  proof  of  this  the  examination  papers  for  admission  to  high  schools 
were  appealed  to.  These  showed  the  acquirements  of  the  more  proficient 
scholars  ;  for  as  a  rule  it  is  they  who  go  to  the  high  schools.  Judging  by 
these  papers  the  graduates  of  the  grammar  schools  were  very  far  from 
proficient  in  either  writing,  spelling,  or  grammar.  Now,  these  are  things 
which  the  common  schools  can  and  should  give  all  children,  no  mat- 
ter what  else  is  sacrificed.  But  they  are  not  given  for  the  simple  rea- 
son that  to  give  them  requires  practice,  and  the  multiplicity  of  studies 
forbids  practice  in  any  one  study.  The  results  of  the  old  system  in 
Quincy,  as  brought  to  light  through  the  earlier  examinations,  have  already 
been  referred  to;  the  ridiculous  knowledge,  for  instance,  of  parts  of 
speech  and  abstract  rules  of  grammar,  acquired  in  order  to  be  able  to 
parse  complicated  sentences,  but  combined  with  an  utter  inability  to  cor- 
rectly write  or  decently  spell  the  words  of  the  most  ordinary  letter. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  general  policy  outlined  by  the  com- 
mittee was  sufficiently  radical. 

Execution  Entrusted  Wholly  to  the  Superintendent. 

Its  execution  was  entrusted  wholly  to  the  superintendent.  Education 
was  to  recur  to  first  principles.  Not  much  was  to  be  attempted ;  but 
whatever  was  attempted  was  to  be  thoroughly  done,  and  to  be  tested  by 
its  practical  results,  and  not  by  its  theoretical  importance.  Above  all, 
the  simple  comprehensible  processes  of  nature  were  to  be  observed. 
Children  were  to  learn  to  read  and  write  and  cipher  as  they  learned  to 
swim,  or  skate,  or  to  play  ball.  The  rule  by  which  the  thing  was  done 
was  nothing  -,  the  fact  that  it  was  done  well  was  everything. 

Books  Hustled  out  of  Schools. 

English  grammar  as  now  taught  in  our  schools  is  a  singularly  unprofi' 
table  branch  of  instruction.  It  was  now  immediately  hustled  out  of 
them;  and  the  reader  was  sent  after  the  grammar,  and  the  spelling-book 
after  the  reader,  and  the  copy-book  after  the  speller.  Then  the  process  of 
simplification  began.  Reading  at  sight,  and  writing  off-hand  were  to 
constitute  the  basis  of  the  new  system.  The  faculty  of  doing  either  the 
one  or  the  other  of  these  could,  however,  be  acquired  only  in  one  way, — 
by  constant  practice.  Practice  took  time,  and  neither  school-days  nor 
school-hours  were  endless.  Economy  of  time,  therefore,  was  above  all 
else  necessary;  and  economy  of  time  was  wholly  incompatible  with  mul- 
tiplicity of  studies.     Under  the  old  system,  everjrthing  had  been  taught 


294  THE  NEW  DEPARTURE 

separately.  The  reading  lesson,  the  writing  lesson,  the  spelling  lesson, 
had,  in  regular  order,  followed  the  lesson  in  grammar,  and  in  arithmetic, 
and  in  geograj)liy,  and  in  history.  Two  afternoon  half-hours  each  week, 
for  instance,  would  be  devoted  to  the  copy-books,  a  blotted  pile  of  which 
on  the  master's  desk  testified  unmistakably  to  the  inadequate  results 
reached.  Tlie  children  then  could  glibly  tell  what  a  peninsular  was,  but 
they  did  not  know  one  when  they  lived  on  it ;  they  could  stand  up  and 
spell  in  a  spelling-bee,  but  put  a  pen  in  their  hands,  and  the  havoc  they 
made  with  orthography  was  wonderful.  Seven  studies  have  been  enum- 
erated ;  all  considei-ed  elementary.  Instead  of  adding  yet  others  to  these 
the  direction  of  the  committee  was  that  they  should  be  reduced  to  three, 
—  "the  three  R's,"  —  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 

Subjects  to  be  Taught  by  Incessant  Practice. 

The  process  by  which  this  was  to  be  brought  about  was  simple  enough. 
Reading  and  writing  were  to  be  regarded  as  elementary ;  as  such  they 
were  to  be  taught  in  the  primary  schools.  They  were  to  be  taught  there, 
also,  by  incessant  practice,  book  and  pencil  in  hand ;  and  no  scholar  who 
could  not  read  at  sight,  and  write  with  comparative  ease,  could  be  consid- 
ered ready  for  promotion.  Then,  in  the  grammar  grades,  concentration 
was  reduced  to  a  system.  Instruction  in  reading,  writing,  grammar,  spel- 
ling, and,  to  a  very  considerable  degree,  in  history,  and  geography,  were 
combined  in  two  exercises,  —  reading  and  writing.  The  old  reader  having 
disappeared,  the  teacher  was  at  liberty  to  put  in  the  hands  of  the  class 
geographies,  or  histories,  or  magazine  articles,  and,  having  read  them  first, 
the  scholars  might  write  of  them  afterwards,  to  show  that  they  understood 
them.  Their  attention  was  thus  secured,  and,  the  pen  being  continually 
in  the  hand,  they  wrote  as  readily  as  they  spoke,  and  spelling  came  with 
practice.  Under  this  system,  the  absurdity  of  ever  having  expected  any 
adequate  results  from  the  old  one  became  apparent.  How  even  the 
poor  results  which  had  been  obtained,  were  obtained,  was  matter  of  sur- 
prise. To  illustrate  this,  it  is  but  necessary  to  revert  to  some  of  the  other 
branches  of  education,  and,  realizing  the  method  in  which  they  are  ac- 
quired, to  then  compare  it  with  the  methods  adopted  in  the  schools 
for  imparting  branches  less  difficult.  Take,  for  instance,  walking  and 
talking  again,  the  examples  already  referred  to.  Every  child  acquires 
these  perfectly ;  he  is  wholly  at  home  on  his  feet,  and  talks  with  absolute 
facility.  He  acquires  them  thus  perfectly  by  constant  practice.  He 
never,  in  his  life,  would  have  learned  to  walk  firmly,  or  to  talk  fluently, 
if  he  were  shut  up  in  a  sitting  posture,  and,  after  being  elaborately  in- 
structed in  the  principles  of  equilibrium  and  articulation,  were  practised 
in  actual  walkiuQ-  and  talking  for  half  an  hour  a  day  each.     Yet  this  was 


IN  THE  COMMON   SCHOOLS  OF  QUINCY.  295 

exactly  what  was  done  under  the  old  system  of  the  Quincy  schools,  as 
respects  reading  and  writing.  The  grammar  and  the  copy-book  effectu- 
ally put  a  stop  to  all  chance  of  facility  in  either ;  for  children  are  slow  to 
learn,  and  the  time  given  to  the  study  of  formulas  is  time  lost  in  practice. 

Study  Under  the  New  Method  Full  of  Life  and  Interest. 

In  arithmetic  no  great  changes  or  improvement  in  the  methods  of 
instruction,  as  yet,  seem  possible.  The  faculty  of  dealing  rapidly  with 
figures  is  given  to  some  people,  and  is  withheld  from  others ;  that,  with 
sufficient  attention  and  labor,  almost  any  one  can  acquire  a  tolerable 
degree  of  proficiency  with  them,  is,  of  course,  undeniable ;  but  that  it  can 
be  acquired,  except  by  a  strict  regard  to  formulas  patiently  learned,  is, 
at  least,  doubtful.  As  respects  geography,  it  is  by  no  means  so,  and  in  no 
study  has  the  new  departure  in  the  Quincy  schools  been  more  marked 
than  in  this.  The  old  method,  all  are  familiar  with,  for  there  are  few 
indeed,  who  have  ever  been  into  a  regulation  school,  who  have  not  heard 
child  after  child  glibly  chatter  out  the  boundaries,  and  capitals,  and  prin- 
cipal towns,  and  rivers  of  states  and  nations,  and  enumerate  the  waters 
you  would  pass  through,  and  the  ports  you  would  make,  in  a  voyage  from 
Boston  to  Calcutta,  or  New  York  to  St.  Petersburg.  What  it  all  amounted 
to  is  another  matter.  It  approached  terribly  near  the  old  rote  methods. 
Go,  to-day,  into  the  Quincy  schools,  and  in  a  few  moments  two  or  three 
young  children,  standing  about  an  earth-board,  and  handling  a  little  heap 
of  moistened  clay,  will  shape  out  for  you  a  continent,  with  its  mountains, 
rivers,  depressions,  and  coast  indentations,  designating  upon  it  the  prin- 
cipal cities,  and  giving  a  general  idea  of  its  geographical  peculiarities.  I 
do  not  know  whether,  so  far  as  utility  is  concerned,  the  result  obtained 
under  this  method  is  very  different  from  that  obtained  under  the 
other.  Geography  is  not  like  reading,  writing,  or  arithmetic.  In  the 
practical  work  of  ordinary  life,  a  knowledge  of  it  is  an  accomplish- 
ment, rather  than  a  thing  of  necessary  daily  use.  But  there  is  this  differ- 
ence between  the  two  methods  :  the  study  under  the  new  method  becomes 
full  of  life  and  interest ;  while,  under  the  old,  it  was  as  tedious  and  as 
much  like  arithmetic  and  grammar  as  it  could  be  made.  Such  was  the 
theory,  and  obviously,  in  that  its  aim  was  thoroughness,  —  which  it  sought 
to  secure  by  attempting  little,  —  it  was  a  complete  negation  of  the  whole 
present  common-school  system,  founded  on  a  faith  in  the  infinite  capac- 
ity of  children  to  know,  at  an  early  age,  a  little  of  eveiything. 

By  its  results  only  could  this  also  be  judged,  and  opinions  seem  to 
differ  as  to  what  is  after  all  the  end  and  aim  of  a  common-school  educa- 
tion. On  this  point,  however,  the  Quincy  committee  had  early  defined 
their  position.  In  their  report  of  1873,  they  had  laid  down  utility  as  the 
one  and  only  end  which  should  always  be  kept  in  view. 


296  THE  NEW  DEPARTURE 

Studies  Should  Result  in  Something  of  Direct  Use. 

They  had  then  said,  "  The  studies  pursued  in  our  common-school 
course  should  be  so  pursued  that  they  may  result  in  something  of  direct 
use  in  the  ordinary  lives  of  New  England  men  and  women."  This  being 
the  object  they  had  in  view,  the  success  or  failure  of  their  new  departure 
was  to  be  measured  by  what  it  actually  accomplished  in  that  way,  and 
by  nothing  else.  The  faculty  of  easily  writing  an  ordinary  letter  on  a 
business  topic,  correctly  spelled  and  properly  expressed,  is  a  valuable 
faculty  to  have  of  every-day  utility.  A  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  gram- 
mar may  be  useful  to  critics  and  scholars,  but  in  the  lives  of  ordinary 
men  and  women  it  can  be  regarded  only  as  a  useless  accomplishment. 
The  complete  expulsion  of  the  grammar  from  the  schools  seemed  to  take 
away  the  breath  of  the  old-time  masters.  It  had  been  taught  from  the 
beginning ;  it  was  a  tradition ;  it  could  not  be  but  in  ordinary  life  there 
was  utility  in  the  study.  That  the  scholars  could  read  at  sight,  without 
bungling  and  stumbling  over  every  unusual  word  the  moment  they  left 
the  familiar  page  of  their  readers,  —  that  they  could  write  a  simple  letter 
without  being  painfully  conscious  of  an  unaccustomed  labor,  —  these, 
though  very  considerable,  were  by  no  means  the  only  or  even  the  most 
noticeable  results  of  the  new  departure.  In  the  upper  grammar,  as  well 
as  the  lowest  primary,  there  was  an  entire  change  of  spirit,  and  going  to 
school  was  no  longer  what  it  had  been.  This  was  recognized  by  the 
parents  quite  as  nmch  as  by  the  teachers. 

Marked  Improvement  in  Attendance  Under  the  New  Method. 

Not  only  was  there  a  marked  improvement  in  attendance,  but  the 
attendance  was  cheerful.  The  "whining  schoolboy"  was  no  longer  seen 
"wending  like  snail  unwillingly  to  school ";  and,  remembering  what  had 
been,  it  was  certainly  most  pleasant  to  go  into  the  rooms  and  feel  the 
atmosphere  of  cheerfulness,  activity,  and  interest  which  pervaded  them. 
Not  that  the  children  liked  their  vacations  less,  but  they  had  ceased  to 
dislike  their  school-rooms ;  and  to  those  who  remember  as  vividly  as  most 
persons  over  thirty  do,  the  wholly  unattractive,  not  to  say  repulsive,  char- 
acter both  of  the  old-time  school  teaching  and  the  old-time  school  dis- 
cipline, this  change  is  one  for  which  those  who  enjoy  the  advantage  of  it 
may  well  be  grateful. 

The  improvement  of  the  schools  under  the  new  departure,  while 
freely  admitted  by  teachers,  parents,  and  committee,  was  made  even  more 
clearly  apparent  by  the  general  interest  the  experiment  excited,  and  the 
number  of  those  from  all  parts  who  came  to  see  for  themselves  what  was 
being  done.  Before  1875,  no  visitor  ever  entered  the  schools  of  Quincy, 
except  some  parent  now  and  then,  or  an  occasional  acquaintance  of  a 
teacher. 


IN  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS  OF  QUINCY.  297 

In  1878,  the  number  of  those  coming  to  observe  the  new  system,  espe- 
cially teachers  and  specialists  in  education,  was  so  great  that  it  threatened 
seriously  to  interfere  with  instruction,  and  the  committee  found  them- 
selves obliged  to  take  measures  towards  regulating  it. 

Economy  is  Wealth. 

But  while  the  improvement  was  apparent  enough,  and  did  not  need 
to  be  pointed  out,  the  all-important  question  remained  :  At  what  money- 
cost  was  it  bought  ?  If  it  involved  a  heavy  addition  to  taxes,  no  matter 
how  great  the  improvement,  it  was  none  the  less  a  failure.  The  common- 
school  system  of  Massachusetts  was,  in  the  view  of  the  committee,  in  very 
great  danger  of  crushing  the  community  it  was  meant  to  protect.  The 
average  annual  cost  of  educating  a  child  in  Quincy  had  increased  fivefold 
in  thirty  years;  and  the  experience  of  Quincy  in  this  respect  was  not 
exceptional.  It  has  already  been  suggested  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as 
taxing  a  community  to  death  ;  and  it  is  quite  apparent  that  the  recent 
ratio  of  increase  in  taxation  for  school  purposes  will,  if  it  goes  on,  soon 
afford  in  the  case  of  Massachusetts  a  practical  illustration  of  the  process. 

The  eifort  in  Quincy  had  therefore  been  to  so  economize  expenditure, 
by  better  and  more  intelligent  direction,  that  the  town  should  get  in  value 
received  one  hundred  cents  for  each  dollar  spent,  instead  of  fifty,  or  per- 
haps only  forty,  cents  as  had  before  been  the  case.  On  this  economical 
calculation  the  whole  action  of  the  committee  was  based.  The  money 
question  was  kept  steadily  in  view,  and  never  for  a  moment  did  they  allow 
the  superintendent's  zeal  in  his  work  to  hide  it.  The  whole  thing  was  a 
failure  unless  at  least  twice  the  educational  results  were  obtained  for  the 
same  money.  On  this  point,  the  figures  of  their  annual  reports  told  the 
whole  story,  and  it  was  a  plain  and  unmistakable  story.  In  1875,  when 
the  new  departure  was  made,  the  annual  cost  of  educating  each  child  was 
$19.24 ;  three  years  later,  in  1878,  it  was  $15.68.  While  the  quality  of 
the  instruction  given  had  been  immeasurably  improved,  its  cost  had  been 
reduced  one-fifth. 

Money  Intelligently  Applied. 

But,  to  do  this,  money  must  be  intelligently  applied,  and  not  igno- 
rantly  muddled  away.  Honesty  and  good  intentions  are  not  enough  ; 
some  science  is  here  necessary.  At  present,  among  other  things,  well- 
meaning  stupidity,  greediness  of  petty  authority,  and  jealousy  of  superior 
knowledge,  on  the  part  of  local  school  committees,  are  proving  terribly 
expensive  luxuries  to  our  towns. 

Studied  in  the  light  of  the  recent  experience  of  Quincy,  the  statistics 
of  the  board  of  education  show  clearly  enough  that,  under  a  moderate 


298  THE  NEW   DEPARTURE 

computation,  an  annual  v.aste  of  some  two  millions  a  year  is  now  regularly 
going  on  in  Massachusetts,  from  the  lack  of  a  pervading  and  intelligent 
direction  of  expenditures  for  school  purposes. 

Success  Due  to  Three  Concurring  Circumstances. 

In  conclusion,  whatever  degree  of  success  has  marked  the  recent  expe- 
rience of  Quincy  has  been  due  to  three  concurring  circumstances:  the 
town,  by  its  action,  retained  a  committee  in  office  long  enough  to  enable 
it  to  mature  and  carry  out  an  educational  policy,  —  in  fact,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  it  was  a  commission ;  that  committee  had  a  distinct  idea  of 
something  necessary  to  be  done,  and  of  a  method  of  doing  it ;  and,  finally, 
the  assistance  of  a  competent  and  intelligent  executive  officer  was  secm'ed. 

This  concurrence  of  circumstances  is  one  not  easy  to  be  brought  about, 
and  if  it  is  not  brought  about,  there  is  no  remedy,  —  the  community  must 
pay  at  least  twice  what  they  are  worth  for  its  schools.  For  one  only  of 
these  three  conditions  can  any  further  public  provision  be  made ;  that, 
however,  is  the  most  important  of  the  three.  An  intelligent  direction  can 
be  given.  Altogether  too  often  it  is  as  if,  in  cities  and  towns,  mills  or 
factories  were  kept  in  operation  for  public  purposes,  but  the  care  of  them 
was  entrusted  to  shifting  committees  chosen  by  popular  vote. 

Just  those  mills  and  factories  are  indeed  running ;  but,  instead  of  put- 
ting into  them  hemp  or  cotton  or  iron  to  be  worked  up,  we  put  in  our 
children.  The  teaching  of  a  human  generation  is  such  a  very  simple  busi- 
ness that  any  one  can  direct  it !  The  result  is  precisely  the  same  as  if  a 
like  policy  were  pursued  in  those  industries  which  pay  the  taxes  Avhich 
support  the  schools. 

If  mills  and  founderies  were  run  in  this  way,  you  would  have  very 
poor  cloth  and  iron  at  a  very  high  cost.  So  it  is  as  respects  the  common- 
school  system,  —  only  the  human  intellect  is  a  much  more  delicate  raw 
material  with  which  to  deal,  than  cotton,  or  iron  ore.  The  consequence 
is  that  very  few  person^,  whose  attention  has  not  been  particularly  called 
to  the  matter,  have  any  idea  what  a  wretched  article  of  public  education 
we  in  Massachusetts  are  now  getting,  in  spite  of  the  large  sum  we  pay 
for  it.  So  far  as  my  observation  enables  me  to  judge,  the  old  Common- 
wealth is  in  this  matter  living  on  its  past  reputation. 

Education  now  a  Science. 

Neither  can  any  improvernent  in  the  present  state  of  affairs  be  hoped 
for  from  the  school  committee  as  it  now  exists.  In  a  permanent  point  of 
view,  indeed,  the  temporary  presence  of  an  active-minded,  restless  man 
upon  a  committee  is  more  apt  to  work  an  injury  than  otherwise.  He  in- 
troduces his  changes,  and  does  not  carry  them  out.     He  rides  his  hobby 


IN  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS  OF  QUINCY.  299 

for  a  year  or  two,  in  school  and  committee-room,  and  then  goes  away, 
leaving  his  hobby  behind  him.  Teachers  and  scholars,  after  he  has  gone, 
mount  the  hobby  and  go  through  the  motions  he  has  taught  them,  for  a 
time.  But  they  are  no  better  than  any  other  motions  ;  just  as  a  rut,  after 
all,  is  a  rut,  and  nothing  else.  Education  is  now  a  science,  even  com- 
mon-school education.  Only  within  the  last  thirty  years,  however,  has  it 
become  so.  Being  a  science,  it  must,  like  all  other  sciences,  be  carried 
forward  by  specialists,  and  not  experimented  on  by  amateurs.  Indeed, 
the  wise  amateur  is  he  who  will  recognize  his  own  insufficiency  and  call 
in  the  assistance  of  the  specialist.  In  our  larger  cities,  and  most  noticea- 
bly so  in  the  case  of  cities  the  size  of  Boston,  the  committee  system  is, 
therefore,  wholly  outgrown.  It  should  long  since  have  given  way  to  the 
commission.  Spasmodic,  lumbering,  changeable,  and  incapable  of  that 
sustained  eifort  necessary  to  carry  out  any  enlightened  policy,  the  school- 
committee,  once  its  work  has  outgrown  it,  invariably  becomes  a  mere  fo- 
cus of  intrigue.  Progress  through  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  impossible  ;  but 
it  is  terribly  slow,  and  even  more  costly  than  it  is  slow.  Our  people  have 
a  democratic,  and,  perhaps,  healthy  prejudice  against  commissions ;  but 
they  come  to  them  at  last. 

Though  no  one  yet  has  uttered  the  word,  it  is  probably  not  unsafe  to 
predict  that  the  next  interest  to  be  entrusted  to  them  for  development 
will  be  the  common  schools  of  OTir  larger  cities. 

As  yet,  how^ever,  in  Massachusetts,  so  far  as  the  common-school  system 
is  concerned,  specialists  in  education  do  not,  as  a  class,  exist.  Individuals 
there  are  fully  qualified  for  the  work,  —  men  of  observant  character,  who 
have  reflected  much  on  their  own  experience,  and  are  self-trained ;  but  the 
science  of  training  and  developing  the  human  mind,  through  a  careful 
study  of  its  laws,  is  not,  as  yet,  recognized  here  as  a  science  at  all.  It  is 
looked  upon  as  a  business,  or  a  knack,  —  something  to  be  acquired  by  prac- 
tice, or  picked  up  by  observation.  Young  men  are  elaborately  trained  in 
schools  of  theology,  of  law,  of  medicine,  and  of  science ;  but  teaching 
itself,  is,  as  yet,  looked  down  upon  by  educationalists  as  something  too 
ludicrously  simple  to  call  for  any  special  preparation.  Any  one  can  under- 
stand the  development  of  the  human  intellect !  The  normal  schools  are 
consequently  looked  to  to  supply  the  want,  if,  indeed,  there  is  a  want. 

This,  however,  is  not  the  mission  of  the  normal  schools.  Their  field 
of  usefulness  —  and  it  is  a  very  large  field  —  is  on  a  wholly  different  plane. 
They  supply  teachers,  and  they  have  their  hands  full  in  doing  that. 

No  Plan  Successful  in  Incompetent  Hands. 

The  teacher,  however,  even  the  successful  teacher,  does  not  need  to 
have  the  enlarging  influence  of  an  entire  liberal  education.  The  superin- 
tendent does  need  it.     From  the  necessity  of  the  case,  also,  the  profes- 


goo  '      th:e  new  departure 

sional  teacher  of  the  common  school,  especially  the  countiy  common  school, 
must  be  a  person  contented  with  the  smaller  prizes  of  life.  You  cannot 
have  forty  professors,  or  persons  qualified  to  be  professors,  to  teach  their 
A  B  C's,  or  "the  three  R's,"  to  the  1,600  children  of  a  country  town.  It 
is  possible,  however,  to  have  one  professor,  or,  at  least,  a  part  of  one  pro- 
fessor, to  direct  and  infuse,  with  his  spirit,  the  others.  But  before  he  can 
direct  or  infuse  others  with  his  spirit,  this  man  must  himself  have  a  spirit. 
In  other  words,  he  must  have  acquired  the  principles  of  his  science  in  the 
same  way  that  physicians,  and  lawyers,  and  clergymen  acquire  those  of  their 
sciences.  Until  some  public  provision  exists  for  this,  every  attempt  at  an 
organized  superintendency  will  only  result  —  as  those  attempts  hitherto 
have  resulted  —  in  a  dangerously  large  percentage  of  failures,  bringing 
discredit  on  the  system.  Yet,  what  is  there  which  does  not  fail  when  en- 
trusted to  incompetent  hands  ?  Is  it  a  campaign,  or  a  ship,  or  a  business, 
or  a  household,  or  a  college  ?  In  this  matter  our  institutions  of  higher 
education  would  seem  to  owe  a  debt  of  recognition  to  the  cause  of  general 
education,  which  they  have  been  somewhat  slow  to  recognize.  There  is  a 
missing  link  here,  and,  in  what  should  be  an  American  specialty,  we  seem 
to  be  behind  other  countries. 


Teachers  are  Made,  not  like  Poets,  Born. 

The  apparent  attitude  as  yet  taken  by  our  universities  towards  our 
common  schools  is  either  that  those  who  direct  and  develop  the  latter, 
must,  like  poets,  be  born,  and  cannot  even  be  improved,  or  that  any  one 
is  equal  to  so  simple  a  work.  Certainly,  training  their  graduates  for 
every  other  path  in  life,  they  make  no  effort  to  train  them  for  this.  And 
yet,  taking  into  view  the  vast  field  of  our  common-school  system,  and  its 
intimate  connection  with  the  mass  of  the  people,  it  would  not  be  easy  to 
conceive  any  position  in  which  a  competent  teacher,  a  man  believing  in 
his  mission,  could  exercise  a  wider  and  larger  influence  over  the  future  of 
this  country,  than  in  the  chair  of  pedagogy  of  the  past  graduate  course 
of  one  of  our  great  universities.  He  would  teach  the  teachers.  It  is  en- 
couraging to  find,  also,  that  an  appreciation  of  this  fact  —  of  the  fact 
that  our  institutions  of  higher  learning  owe  something  to  the  cause  of 
general  education  —  begins  to  find  acceptance.  To  the  University  of 
Michigan  belongs,  in  this  case,  the  honor  of  the  lead,  through  the  recent 
establishment  as  part  of  its  course  of  a  chair  of  the  science  of  Education. 

Unquestionably  the  example  will  speedily  be  followed  elsewhere,  and 
a  spirit  of  scientific  instruction  will  be  generally  diffused. 


IN  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS  OF  QUitlCY.  30 1 

A    Trained   Superintendent  needed   in  Order  to  Give   Intelli- 
gent  Direction   to   Teachers. 

The  common  schools  are  the  one  thing  in  regard  to  which  there  is  no 
division  of  opinion  in  America.  The  people  of  the  country  cling  to  them 
and  lavish  appropriations  upon  them  in  the  firm  belief  that  they  are  the 
ark  of  the  national  salvation.  In  Massachusetts  one-fifth  of  the  entire 
amount  raised  by  taxation  is  expended  on  them.  That  under  these  cir- 
cumstances they  should  be  no  better  than  they  now  are  is  a  significant 
fact,  meriting  more  than  a  passing  notice.  They  are  not  what  they  should 
be,  —  indeed,  they  are  very  far  from  it.  Any  practical  experience  which 
throws  light  on  the  causes  of  their  deficiency  is,  therefore,  of  value  ;  any 
intelligent  experiment  made  with  a  view  to  remedying  that  deficiency 
cannot  be  unworthy  of  attention ;  what  is  true  of  one  is  probably  not 
untrue  of  all ;  and  it  is  a  wide-spread  public  want,  —  this  pressing  need 
of  intelligent  direction  concentrating  the  costly  and  misdirected  efforts  to 
a  given  end,  and  inspiring  them  with  a  consciousness  of  progress,  —  this 
advantage  of  a  trained  superintendency,  which  more  than  all  or  anything 
-else  has  been  illustrated  in  the  common-school  experience  of  Quincy. 


^^  O?  THB 

ftJiriVBRSITT] 


PRESSWORK  BY  BERWICK  &  SMITH.    BOSTON. 


'VIVE' 


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x-/'-'*  ■•,  .'■"^.^ . 


02 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAIylFORNIA  lylBRARY 


